Chapter 3,
Chapter 3,
CHAPTER THREE
FLUID MECHNICS
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3. INTRODUCTION
There are four known states of matter: Solids, Liquids, Gases, and
Plasmas.
Fluids are a phase of matter and include liquids and gases.
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of
fluids in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics) and the forces on
them
Understanding of the fundamental properties of these different states of matter is
important in all the sciences, in engineering, and in medicine
In the Universe at large, plasmas-systems of charged particles interacting
electromagnetically are the most common.
In our environment on Earth, solids, liquids, and gases predominate of matter.
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cont.
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2. Shear Stress and Strain
Shear strain is defined as the ratio x/h, where x is the horizontal distance that
the sheared face moves and h is the height of the object
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3. Volume Stress and Strain
When the deforming force or applied force acts from all dimension resulting
in the change of volume of the object then such stress in called volumetric
stress or Bulk stress.
In short, when the volume of body changes due to the deforming force it is
termed as Volume stress.
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Cont…
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Answ
er
The deforming force can change in:
Shape
Volume
Size of the object(length)
Elastic Modulus
The stress will be proportional to the strain if the stress is sufficiently small.
In this regard, the proportionality constant known as elastic modulus depends
on the material being deformed and on the nature of the deformation.
stress = elastic modulus × strain
Analogous to Hooke‘s law ( F=-kX)
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Shear Modulus (S)
tis the ratio of shear stress to shear strain
it is the measure of the resistance to motion of the planes within a solid
parallel to each other
the unit of shear modulus (S) is the ratio of the force to that
for area
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3. Bulk Modulus (Volume elasticity) (B)
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Example: Suppose that the tension in the cable is 940 N as the actor reaches the
lowest point. What diameter should a 10-m-long steel wire have if we do not want it
to stretch more than 0.5 cm under these conditions?
Questions
1. To increase the length by 0.5 mm of a steel wire of length 2 m and area of cross-
section 2 mm2, then find the force required, and use
Density and Pressure in Static Fluids
The density of an object having uniform composition is its mass M divided by
its volume V: with SI unit
Specific Gravity (SG): is the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of another substance which is taken as a standard.
The density of pure water at is usually taken as the standard
and this has been defined to be exactly .
Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity and the same in
any system of measurement
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Cont..
Pressure is the ratio of the force acting perpendicular to s surface to the surface area (A) on
which the force acts. SI unit of pressure is N/m2 called Pascal (Pa). Another commonly used
pressure unit is atmosphere (atm) equal to 101.3 kPa
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Application of Pascal‘s principle
For example: input and output pistons
the hydraulic press (see figure), According to Pascal‘s principle, these
A downward force F1 is applied to a two pressures are equal implying:
small piston of area A1.
It’s instructive to compare the forces on a totally submerged object with those
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Case I: A Totally Submerged Object
When an object is totally submerged in a fluid of density , the upward buoyant force
acting on the object has a magnitude of where is the volume of the object. If the
object has density , the downward gravitational force acting on the object has a
magnitude equal to and the net force on it is
If the density of the object is less than the density of the fluid the net force exerted on
the object is positive the object accelerates upward
If the density of the object is greater than the density of the fluid,
the net force is negative and the object accelerates downwards.
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Case II: A Floating Object
Now consider a partially submerged object in static equilibrium
floating in a fluid, In this case, the upward buoyant force is balanced
by the downward force of gravity acting on the object. The magnitude
of buoyance force given by and
the weight of the object but follows that or
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Cont….
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Moving Fluids and Bernoulli Equations (Fluid Dynamics)
When a fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized in one
of two ways.
1. The flow is said to be streamline, or laminar
if every particle that passes a particular point moves along
exactly the same smooth path followed by previous particles
passing that point
Different streamlines can’t cross each other under this
steady-flow condition, and the streamline at any point
coincides with the direction of the velocity of the fluid at that
point
Factors affecting laminar flow are;
density, compressibility,
temperature and
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.
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.
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Equation of continuity
As show in fig represents a fluid flowing through a pipe of non-
uniform size. The
particles in the fluid move along the streamlines in steady-state
flow. In a small time interval , the fluid entering the bottom end
of the pipe moves a distance, .
is the cross-sectional area in this region, then the mass contained in the
bottom . Similarly, the fluid that moves out of the upper end of
the pipe in the same time interval has a mass of
. However, because mass is conserved and because the flow is steady or
for the case of incompressible fluid
There fore the above equation become
known as equation of continuity
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.
the amount (either mass or volume) of fluid flowing through a cross section of the
tube in a given time interval must be the same for all cross sections or
the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along a tube is constant for
an incompressible fluid
Therefore, the speed is high where the tube is constricted and low where the tube
has a larger diameter.
The product , which has dimensions of volume per unit time, is called the flow
rate
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Bernoulli’s Equation
As a fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross section and elevation, the pressure
changes along the pipe.
Bernoulli’s equation is not a freestanding law of physics; rather, it’s a
consequence of energy conservation as applied to an ideal fluid
Consider the flow through a non-uniform pipe in the time , as in Fig. The force
on the lower end of the fluid is where P1 is the pressure at the lower end. The
work done on the lower end of the fluid by
the fluid behind it is
In a similar manner, he work done on the fluid on the
Upper portion in the time is
The
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volume is the same because by the equation of continuity
.
The work is negative because the force on the fluid at the top is opposite its
displacement. The net work done by these forces in the time is
Part of this work goes into changing the fluid’s kinetic energy, and part goes into
changing the gravitational potential energy of the fluid–Earth system
If is the mass of the fluid passing through the pipe in the time interval , then the
change in kinetic energy of the volume of fluid is
there fore changes the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the non-
isolated
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system,
The three terms in this equation are those we have just evaluated. Substituting expressions for each of
the terms gives
known as
Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the pressure the kinetic energy per unit
volume and the potential energy per unit volume, , has the same value at all points
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along a streamline.
.
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.
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Question
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