NAVIGATION

Great Circle Sailing

Great Circle Sailing is used for long ocean passages. For this purpose,
the earth is considered a perfect spherical shape; therefore, the
shortest distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the
great circle containing two points. As the track is the circle, so the
course is constantly changing, and the track must be broken down
into a series of short rhumb lines at frequent intervals that can be
used to sail on the Mercator chart. Doing this, the navigator would
use the Gnomonic charts combined with the Mercator charts to
draw the sailing track.

EQ Equator AB Great circle track

P Pole α Great circle
PA Polar distance of A initial course β Great circle
PB Polar distance of B final course

Procedure to use 1. Plot departure and destination positions on the gnomonic chart;
Gnomonic and join two positions, since the great circle appears as a straight
Mercator Charts for line on the gnomonic chart.
Great Circle Sailing
2. Choose the specific interval meridian along the track where the
course will be changed. Then plot the positions of intersection
of the track and the meridian chosen on the Mercator chart.

3. Join all the plotted positions on the Mercator chart by a series of

rhumb lines; the course and distance between each position can
be solved by the plane sailing method.

As the great circle track line is plotted on the gnomonic chart, the
vertex and the chosen intermediate positions can be read off directly
from the chart. However, this is not as accurate as the calculation
which will be shown later in this section.

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 NAVIGATION

Great circle distance cos AB  cosPAcosPB  sinPAsinPBcosP

 sinLat.A sinLat.B  cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD.long.AB

DAB  cos
1
sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD.Long. 
A B A
B AB

Initial course cos cosPB  cosPAcos AB sinLatB  sinLat A cosDAB

 sinPAsin AB cosLat A sinDAB

 1
 sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB

cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

The initial course also can be calculated by following formulas:

 1  cosLat. B  sinD.Long. AB 
sin  sinD AB 
or
sinD. Long.AB 
 
  tan1 
 cosLat. A tanLat. B  sinLat. AcosD. Long. AB 

cosPA  cosPBcos AB sinLat A  sinLatB cosDAB

Final course cos 
sinPBsin AB cosLatB sinDAB

B  sinLat A  sinLat BcosD AB


arccos  cosLat B sinD AB 

The final course also can be calculated by following formulas:

 1  cosLat. A  sinD.Long. AB 
sin  sinD AB 
or
sinD. Long.AB 
 
  tan1 
 cosLat. BtanLat. A sinLat. BcosD. Long. AB 

The great circle calculations of initial and final courses result in

quadrantal notation as cardinal compass. Corrected quadrant must
be named in order to avoid mistakes when converting into three-
figure notation (0°-360°).

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Rules to name The initial course always has same name as the initial latitude and
Initial and Final east or west direction of the course. The final course always has the
Courses of a Great opposite name from final latitude unless initial position and final
Circle position are in different hemispheres, when the final will have same
name as final latitude and east or west direction of the course.

Summary Direction of course: Easterly

Initial
Latitude
North South
Final
Latitude
Initial course: NE Initial course: SE
North
Final course: SE Final course: NE

Initial course: NE Initial course: SE

South
Final course: SE Final course: NE

Direction of course: Westerly

Initial
Latitude
North South
Final
Latitude
Initial course: NW Initial course: SW
North
Final course: SW Final course: NW

Initial course: NW Initial course: SW

South
Final course: SW Final course: NW

Initial and final courses can also be found by using ABC tables or
ABC computations, just like solving the azimuth of a celestial body
by considering one position as the observer’s position and another
as position of the celestial body. The azimuth would be the initial or
final course, depending which is designated. For example, in order
to find initial course, the initial position is considered as the
observer’s position, and the final position as the celestial position.
Conversely, for finding the final course; the final position is
considered as the observer’s position, and initial position as the
celestial position. The course would be named as "C", and direction
is the hour angle which is D. Long. between two positions.

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Example 1 Find the distance, initial course and final course:

From A: 5620N 00812W

To B: 5212N 05710W

Lat.A  5620N Lat.B  5212N

D.Long.AB  5710  812  4858(W)

DAB  cos sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance 1
A B A
B AB


 cos1 sin5620sin5212  cos5620cos5212cos4858 
 2816.5
Distance  1696.5 miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1  sin5212  sin5620cos2816.5    7725.4 

cos  cos5620sin2816.5 
77.4
Initial course  N77.4W 
282.6T

Final course  1  sinLat A  sinLat BcosD AB


cos  cosLat B sinD AB 

 1  sin5620  sin5212cos2816.5    6158.7 

cos  cos5212sin2816.5 
62.0
Final course  S62.0W 
242T

Example 2 Find the distance, initial course and final course of great circle
sailing:

From A : 3322S 11308E

To B: 1051S 04916E

Lat.A  3322S Lat.B 

1051S

D. Long.AB  11308  4916 

6352(W)

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DAB  cos sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 

Distance 1
A B A
B AB


 cos1 sin3322sin1051  cos3322cos1051cos6352 
 6218.1
Distance  3738.1miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1  sin1051  sin3322cos6218.1    9513.8 

cos  cos3322sin6218.1 
95.2
Initial course  S95.2W 
275.2T

Final course  1  sinLat A  sinLat BcosD AB


cos  cosLat B sinD AB 

 1  sin3322  sin1051cos6218.1    5752.1 

cos  cos1051sin6218.1 
57.9
Final course  N57.9W 
302.1T

Example 3 Find the distance and initial course of great circle sailing from
Vancouver to Guam:
Crossing 180°
meridian Vancouver (A): 4912N 12250W
Guam (B): 1330N
14515E

Lat.A  4912N Lat.B  1330N

D.Long.AB  360  12250  14515

9155(W)
DAB cos 
sinLat. sinLat.
1
 cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance A B A
B AB


 cos1 sin 4912sin1330  cos4912cos1330cos9155 
 8103.4
Distance  4863.4 miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1  sin1330 sin 4912cos8103.4    7940.1 

cos  cos4912sin8103.4  79.7
Initial course  N79.7W 
280.3T

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 NAVIGATION

Example 4 Find the distance and initial course of great circle sailing from Bluff
Harbour to Easter Island:
Crossing 180°
meridian Bluff Harbour (A): 4620S 16910E
Easter Island (B): 2625S 10515W

Lat.A  4620S Lat.B  2625S

D.Long.AB  360  16910  10515

 8535(E)
DAB  cos
1
sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance A B A
B AB


 cos1 sin 4620sin2625  cos4620cos2625cos8535 
 6819.1
Distance  4099.1miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1  sin2625 sin 4620cos6819.1    7355.5 

cos  cos4620sin6819.1  73.9
Initial course  S73.9E 
106.1T
Example 5 Find the distance, initial course and final course of great circle
sailing:
Crossing the Equator
and 180° meridian From A : 17S 170E
To B: 22N 110W

Lat.A  17S Lat.B  22N

D.Long.AB  360 170 110

 80(E)
Since the name of the latitude of
the destination is contrary to the
latitude of departure, then the
latitude of destination is treated as
a negative quantity.
DAB  cos
1
sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance A B A
B AB

 cos1 sin17sin(22)  cos17cos(22)cos80

 8727.2
Distance  5247.2miles

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 NAVIGATION

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 
sin22  sin17cos8727.2 
 1  
cos  cos17sin8727.2 
 11356.1  113.9
Initial course  S113.9E 
066.1T

Final course  1  sinLat A  sinLat BcosD AB


cos  cosLat B sinD AB 
sin17 sin(22)cos8727.2 
 1  
cos  cos(22)sin8727.2 
 7030.7  70.5
Final course  N70.5E 
070.5T
Example 6 Compare rhumb line distance with great circle distance:

Dunedin (A): 4544S 17115E

Panama (B): 730N
7921W
Rhumb line sailing Lat.A 4544S M.P.A 3075.80 Long.A 17115E
Lat.B 730N M.P.B 448.24 Long.B 7921W
D. Lat. D.M.P. 3524.04 D. Long. 6564(E)
3194(N)

 D.Long.   tan1  6564 

 3524.04 61.8
C  tan1
 D.M.P. 

3194
Distance  cosC  cos61.8 
D. Lat.
6159.1miles

Great circle sailing Lat.A  4544 S Lat.B  0730N

D.Long.AB  360  17115  7921  10924

DAB  cos
1
sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
A B A
B AB


 cos1 sin 4544sin730  cos4544cos730cos10924 
 10851.9
Distance  6531.9miles

Difference  6531.9  6159.1  372.8miles

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Vertex The arc of a great circle will always curve towards the nearest pole
and away from the equator. The vertex is the point on a great circle
that is closest to the pole; by knowing the latitude of the vertex, if it
is too high (which is usually associates with ice, fog, cold and severe
weather), the navigator might have to modify the passage plan for a
safer voyage. There are two vertices on a great circle, 180° apart; the
nearer vertex is usually the chosen one for navigational calculation.
The vertex’s latitude is always numerically equal to or greater than
the latitude of any other point on the great circle, including the
latitude of departure and destination. At the vertex, the great circle
is running in a direction of 090°/270°. Knowing the position of the
vertex also helps in calculating the position of any intermediate
position on the track of a great circle. In the spherical triangle APB, if
angles A and B are less than 90°; the vertex will lie inside the
triangle between A and B, as shown in the figure (1) below, and
the ship’s track passes through the vertex. If either A or B is greater
than 90°, the vertex will lie outside the spherical triangle and on the
side of the angle which is greater than 90°, as shown in the figure (2)
below, and the ship’s track does not pass through the vertex.

■ The vertex is 90° from the point where the track of the great
circle cuts the equator.

■ The course where the great circle crosses the equator is equal
to the co. latitude of the vertex.

A Initial position
AV Great circle track
V Vertex (upper branch)
Vʹ Vertex (lower branch)
QV Latitude of vertex
EQ Equator
C Intersection of GC track and
equator
α GC course at equator
PN Co. Latitude of vertex V
V
PN V   CV  90

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 NAVIGATION

The position of the vertex, and the distance from departure point to
vertex, can be calculated by using Napier’s Rules in the right angle
triangle PVA:

For all formulas used for great circle vertex calculations, if the name of
the latitude of any position, including the departure and destination,
is contrary to the latitude of the vertex, then the latitude of those
having a contrary name to the latitude of vertex is treated as a
negative quantity.

Latitude of the vertex sinPV  cosco Acos(coPA)  sin AsinPA

(Lat.V)
 cosLat. V  sin AcosLat. A
Lat.V  cos
1
sin cosLat.  or Lat.V  cos
1
sin cosLat. 
A B

Difference of sin(coP)  tanPV tan(coPA)

longitude between
cot PA tanL A
departure and vertex cosP  cosD.Long.AV 
(D. Long.AV)  cot PV tanLV

D.Long. AV  1  tanLat. A 
cos  V 
tanLat.

D. Long. can also be found by the formula:

sin(co A)  cosPVcos(coP)
cos A  cosPVsinP
cos A
cos A
 sinP  cosPV  sinD.Long. AV sinLat. V

 cos 
D.Long. AV  sin1
 sinLat. V 
When using above formula, if the latitude of departure is contrary to
the vertex, then the result has to be subtracted by 180° to get corrected
D. Long.

Difference of  cos 
longitude between D.Long. BV  1  tanLat. B  or D.Long.  1

BV
 V  sin

destination and vertex cos tanLat. sinLat. V 
(
D. Long.BV) Similarly, when using the above formula, if the latitude of destination
is contrary to vertex, then the result has to be subtracted by 180° to get
corrected D. Long.

Distance from sin AV  cos(coPA)cos(coP)  sinPAsinP

departure position to  sinDAV  cosLat.A sinD.Long.AV
the vertex (D AV)

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 NAVIGATION

DAV  sin
1
cosLat. sinD. Long. 
A
or
AV

sin(coP)  cos AVcos(co A)

cosP  cos AVsin A  cosD. Long. 
1
cosP DAV  AV

 cos AV sin A cos  sin  

Example 7 Find the great circle distance, the initial course and the position
of the vertex, and also the distance from departure position to the
vertex:

From A : 3455S 5610W

To B: 3355S 1825E

Lat.A  3455S Lat.B 

3355S
DAB  cos
1
sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance A B A
B AB
D. Long.AB  05610  1825 

 cos1 sin3455sin3355  cos3455cos3355cos7435
7435(E)

 5958.9
Distance  3598.9miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1  sin3355  sin3455cos5958.9    6730.4 

cos  cos3455sin5958.9 
67.5
Initial course  S67.5E 
112.5T
Lat.V  cos
1
sincoslat.   cos sin6730.4cos3455 1
Vertex’s position A

Lat.V  4044.8S
 tanLat   tan3455 
D. Long.V  cos1  A
  cos 
1
 3553.0(E)
tanLat. 
 V   tan 4044.8

Long.V  5610W  3553.0(E)  2017W

Vertex's Position: Lat.V  4444.8S Long.V  2017.0W

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 NAVIGATION

Distance from DAV  sin1 cosLat. A sinD. Long.AV   sin cos3455sin3553.0

1

departure position to
the vertex  2843.6
Distance  1723.6
miles
It is not practical for a ship to sail along a great circle track, because
Practical Method for
Great Circle Sailing she has to change course constantly in order to follow it. Therefore,
the great circle is divided into equal segments by longitudes, and is
then made up of a series of rhumb lines. The rhumb lines can be
plotted on the Mercator chart and followed by the ship. The rule of
thumb for selecting the equal interval D. Long. from the vertex is:

“Short legs in lower latitudes,

long legs in higher latitudes”

By using Napier’s rules for the spherical right-

angle triangle PVX:
Latitude at the sin(coP)  tanPV tan(coPX)
meridian cuts the cosP  tanPVcot PX
great circle track
cosP
cot PX  tanPX  cosPcot PV
 tanPV
tanLat.X  cosD. Long.VX tanLat.V

Lat.X  tan
1
cosD.Long. VX tanLat.V 

Course at the sin(co X)  cosPVcos(coP)

meridian cuts the cos X  cosPVsinP  sinLat.V VX
great circle track sinD.Long.
X  cos1 sinLat.V sinD.Long. VX


The longitude can also be selected as the equal interval distance on
the great circle from the vertex, and the position can be calculated by
using Napier’s rules:

sin(coPX)  cosPVcos VX
cosPX  cosPVcos VX sinLat.X  sinLat.V cosDVX

Lat.X  sin
1
sinLat. V cosDVX 

sin(coP)  tan(coPX)tanPV

cosP  cot PX tanPV cosD. Long.VX  tanLat.X

tanLat. V

D. Long. VX  1  tanLat X 
cos 
tanLat V 

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Example 8 Find: the great circle distance; initial course; final course; position
of the vertex; and the latitudes that cut intermediate meridians at 5°
intervals, starting from the departure meridian:

From A : 5125N 930W

To B: 4600N 4900W

Lat.A  5125N Lat.B 

4600N

D.Long.AB  4900W  930W

DAB  cos sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance  13930(W)
A B A
B AB


 cos1 sin5125sin 4600  cos5125cos4600cos3930 
 2617.1
Distance  1577.1miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1  sin 4600  sin5125cos3930   8609.9 

cos  cos5125sin3930  86.2
Initial course  N86.2W 
273.8T

Final course  1  sinLat A  sinLat BcosD AB


cos  cosLat B sinD AB 

 1  sin5125 sin 4600'cos3930    6336.5 

cos  cos4600sin3930  63.6
Final course  S63.6W 
243.6T
Vertex’s Position
Lat.V  cos
1
sincoslat. 
A

 cos 1
sin8609.9cos5125  5131.1N

 tanLat   tan5125  
1 A
D. Long. AV 
cos 
tanLat V   tan5131.1  454.0(W)
Long.V  930.0W  454.0(W)  1424.0W

Vertex's Position: Lat.V  5131.1N Long.V  1424.0W

Waypoints For intervals of D. Long. of 5° from departure position (A)

Long.A  930.0W Long.V  1424.0W

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Latitude of any x position can be calculated by formula:

Lat.X  tan cosD.Long. VX tanLat.V 

1

Longitude D. Long.VX Latitude

Position
(Long.X ) (Long.X  Long.V ) (Lat.X )
X1 1430W 006 5131.1N
X2 1930W 506 5124.5N
X3 2430W 1006 5104.9N
X4 2930W 1506 5032.1N
X5 3430W 2006 4945.2N
X6 3930W 2506 4843.4N
X7 4430W 3006 4725.4N

Example 9 Find: the great circle distance; initial course; position of the vertex;
distance from departure position to the vertex; and the positions
where the meridians of 140° W, 160° W, 180° and 160° E cut the
track on the great circle:

From A : 4824N 12444W

To B: 3450N 13950E

Lat.A  4824N Lat.B 

3450N

DAB  cos
D.Long. 
sinLat. sinLat.
AB 1360 12444 
 cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 
Distance A B A
13950 B AB


 cos1 sin 4824sin3450  cos4824cos3450cos9526
 9526(W)

 5756.6
Distance  4076.6miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD AB


cos  cosLat. A sinD AB 

 1
 sin3450  sin 4824cos6756.6  
cos  cos4824sin6756.6 
 6150.6  61.8
Initial course  N61.8W 
298.2T

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Lat.V  cos
1
sincosLat. 
Vertex’s Position A

 cos 1
sin6150.6cos4824  5410.3N

 tanLat   tan 4824  

1 A
D. Long. AV 
cos 
tanLat V   tan5410.3  3535.6(W)

Long.V  12444W  3535.6  16019.6W

Vertex's Position: Lat.V  5410.3N Long.V  16019.6W

Distance from DAV  sin1 cosLat.A sinD.Long. AV
departure position to
the vertex 
 sin1 cos4824sin3535.6 
Distance  1363.9
 2243.9
miles
Position where the Lat. X  tan1 cosD. Long. VX tanLat.
meridian cut the great
V
circle track
Longitude D. Long.VX Latitude
Position
(Long.X ) (Long.X  Long.V ) (Lat.X )
X1 140W 2019.6 5224.4N
X2 160W 019.6 5410.3N
X3 180W 1940.4 5231.3N
X4 160E 3940.4 4650.0N

Example 10 Find the great circle distance; initial course; final course; longitude
where the great circle crosses the equator; nearest vertex; and the
Crossing Equator waypoints at 10° intervals from 130°W to 170°W:

From A : 30N 120W

To B: 20 S 173 W

Lat.A  30N Lat.B  20S

D.Long.AB  173  120  53 (W )

Since the name of the latitude of

the destination is contrary to the
latitude of departure, then the
latitude of destination is treated as
a negative quantity.

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

DAB  cos sinLat. sinLat.  cosLat. cosLat. cosD. Long. 

Distance 1
A B A
B AB

 cos1 sin30sin 20    cos30cos20cos53

 7124.8
Distance  4284.8miles

Initial course  1  sinLat. B  sinLat. AcosD

AB

cos  cosLat. A sinD AB


sin 20  sin30cos7124.8 
 1  
cos   cos30sin7124.8 
 12738.9  127.6
Initial course  N127.6W 
232.4T

Final course  1  sinLat A  sinLat BcosD AB


cos  cosLat B sinD AB 
  
sin30 sin 20 cos7124.8 
 1  
cos cos20sin7124.8
 
 4651.7 46.9
Final course  S46.9W 
226.9T
Vertex’s position In this case, the angle PAB is greater than 90°; therefore, the vertex
does not lie between A and B, but outside of the A side. From the
right-angled triangle PVA:
Lat.V  cos
1
sincosLat. 
A


 cos1 sin12738.9cos30   4642.6N
D. Long. AV  1  tanLat A   tan30 
  
cos tanLat V  tan 4642.6 
5703.1(E)
Long.V  120 W  5703.1  06256.9W

Vertex's Position: Lat.V  4642.6 N Long.V  06256.9W

Longitude where At the pole, the meridian of the position where the great circle
great circle crosses crosses the equator is 90° with the meridian of the vertex. We can
the Equator prove this as follows:

tanLat.X  cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V

At equator, Lat.X equals zero so tanLat.X  0

cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V  0 Lat.V  0 tanLat.V 

0
cosD.Long.VX  0  D.Long.VX  90
CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK
 NAVIGATION

LongitudeX  Long.V  D. Long.VX

E E

 6256.9W  90  15256.9W

Meridian where great circle crosses the equator is 15256.9W

Positions where the Lat. X  tan1 cosD.Long. VX tanLat. V

meridian cut the great
circle track 
Longitude D. Long.VX Latitude
Position
(Long.X ) (Long.X  Long.V ) (Lat.X )
X1 130W 6703.0 2229.1N
X2 140W 7703.0 1322.8N
X3 150W 8703.0 0307.5N
X4 160W 9703.0 0725.5S
X5 170W 10703.0 1717.4S

Example 11 From A : 45N 100W

To B: 30 S 130 E
Crossing Equator
and 180° Meridian
Find:
1. Great circle distance
2. Initial course
3. Final course
4. Vertex’s position
5. Course at equator
6. Longitude when crossing equator
7. Latitude when crossing 180° meridian
8. Course and latitude for every 10° longitude
9. Mercator sailing course and distance
10. Compare distance between sailing methods.

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Lat.A  45N Lat.B  30S


D.Long.AB  360 100 130   130(W)

Since the name of the latitude of the destination is contrary to the

latitude of departure, then the latitude of destination is treated as a
negative quantity.
Distance
D AB  cos1 sinLat. A sinLat. B cosLat. cosLat.
A cosD.
B Long.  AB 
 cos1 sin 45sin 30   cos45cos30cos130
 13820.8
Distance  8300.8miles

Initial course  1

 B  sinLat.A cosDAB 
sin Lat.

cos   cosLat. A sinD AB


 1 sin 30  sin 45cos13820.8  
cos   cos45sin13820.8 
 8632.6  86.5
Initial course  N86.5W 
273.5T

Final course  1 sinLat. A sin 

Lat. BcosD 
AB

cos  cosLat. BsinD AB 

 1 sin 45 sin 30 cos13820.8  
cos  cos30sin13820.8 
 5435.3  54.6
Final course  S54.6W 
234.6T
Lat.V  cos sin AcosLat. 
Vertex’s position 1
A

 cos 1
sin8632.6cos45  4506.2N

 tanLat 
1 A tan 45
D. Long. AV  
 452.9(W)
 
cos tanLat  V tan 4506.2 
Long.V  10000W  452.9(W)  10452.9W

Vertex's Position: Lat.V  4506.2N Long.V  10452.9W

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Great circle course At the equator, the angle θ between a great circle track and the
when crossing the equator equals the latitude of the vertex.
Equator
  Latitude of vertex

Course  180 
 180 coLat.V

 180 90 4506.2 
 22453.8
 224.9T

Longitude of position The meridian of the position at the equator and the meridian of the
at Equator vertex would make an angle of 90° at the pole.

Longitude  360  10452.9  90  16507.1E

Latitude when Lat. X  tan1 cosD.Long. VX tanLat.

crossing 180°
V 
Meridian D.Long.VX  180  10452.9 
7507.1
Lat. X  tan1 cos7507.1tan 4506.2 
1427.2N

Latitude at every 10° Lat. X  tan1
cosD.Long. VX tanLat. V 
of Longitude

Longitude D. Long.VX Latitude

Position
(Long.X ) (Long.X  Long.V ) (Lat.X )
X1 110W 507.1 4459.4N
X2 120W 1507.1 4405.7N
X3 130W 2507.1 4215.7N
X4 140W 3507.1 3923.0N
X5 150W 4507.1 3518.4N
X6 160W 5507.1 2951.3N
X7 170W 6507.1 2253.6N
X8 180 7507.1 1427.2N
X9 170E 8507.1 452.9N
X10 160E 9507.1 507.0S
X11 150E 10507.1 1440.1S
X12 140E 11507.1 2304.5S

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Rhumb line course

Long. Lat. Mean Lat. D. Lat. Dep. Co. Dist.
and distance at every
10° of Longitude X0 100 W 4500.0N
4459.7N 0.6 424.3 269.9 424.3
X1 110 W 4459.4N
4432.6N 53.7 427.6 262.8 431.0
X2 120 W 4405.7N
4310.7N 110.0 437.5 255.9 451.1
X3 130 W 4215.7N
4049.4N 172.7 454.0 249.2 485.7
X4 140 W 3923.0N
3720.7N 244.6 477.0 242.9 536.1
X5 150 W 3518.4N
3234.9N 327.1 505.6 237.1 602.2
X6 160 W 2951.3N
2622.5N 417.7 537.5 232.1 680.7
X7 170 W 2253.6N
1840.4N 506.4 568.4 228.3 761.3
X8 180 1427.2N
940.1N 574.3 591.5 225.9 824.4
X9 170E 452.9N
007.1S 599.9 600.0 225.0 848.5
X10 160E 507.0S
953.6S 573.1 591.1 225.9 823.3
X11 150E 1440.1S
1852.3S 504.4 567.8 228.4 759.5
X12 140E 2304.5S
2632.3S 415.5 536.8 232.3 678.8
X13 130E 3000.0S

Total distance: 8306.9 miles

Mercator sailing From A : 45N 100W

course and distance To B: 30 S 130 E

Lat.A 45N M.P.A 3013.38 Long.A 100W

Lat.B S M.P.B 1876.67 Long.B 130E
D. Lat. 4500(S D.M.P. 4890.05 D. Long. 7800(W
) )

 D.Long.   tan1  7800 

 4890.05 57.9
C  tan1
 D.M.P. 

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Course  S57.9W  180 

237.9T
4500
Distance  cosC  cos57.9 
D. Lat
8471.8miles

Compare distances Great circle distance: 8300.8 miles

between methods of Series rhumb line course: 8306.9 miles
sailings One rhumb line course: 8471.8 miles

We can see there is not much difference when breaking down the
great circle track by a series of rhumb lines for convenience (6.1
miles difference), but it still saves compared to Mercator sailing
164.9 miles.

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Composite Great The great circle track is always curved toward the nearest pole,
Circle Sailing where its vertex is the point nearest to the pole. In very high latitudes,
the track of a great circle cannot go beyond a certain latitude due to
navigational restrictions, e.g., ice, fog, severe weather, etc. In such
cases, the sailing track of a great circle has to be modified. The track
then consists of the combined parts of great circles and the parallel
of limiting latitude, which is called Composite Great Circle Sailing.
So, composite great circle sailing is a combination of great circle
sailing and parallel sailing.

Initial course sinPV1  cosco AcoscoPA  sin AsinPA

sin

sinPV
sinPA cosLat.
cosLat.
A 1
 V A

 1  cosLat. V 
sin  A 
cosLat.

Final course sinPV2  coscoPBcoscoB  sinPBsinB

sinPV cosLat.V
sinB  sinPB2 
cosLat.B


  sin1
cosLat.V 

cosLat. 

CAPT. KHAN B  THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK
 NAVIGATION

D. Long. between sincoP1   tanPV1 tancoPA

departure,
destination cosP1  tanPV1 cot PA tanLat. A
positions and tanLat.V
vertices

D.Long. AV  1  tanLat. A 

1
cos tanLat. V 

sincoP2   tanPV2 tancoPB

tanLat.
cosP2  tanPV2 cot PB tanLat. B
V

D.Long. BV  1  tanLat. B 

2
cos tanLat. V 

Distance from sincoPA  cos AV1 cosPV1 sincoPB  cosBV2 cosPV2

departure position cosPA  cos AV1 cosPV1 cosPB  cosBV2 cosPV2
and destination to
limiting latitude cos AV1  cosPA  sinLat. A cosBV2  cosPB  sinLat. B
cosPV1 sinLat.V cosPV2 sinLat.V

AV1  1  sinLat. A  BV2  1  sinLat. B 

cos 
sinLat. V  cos 
sinLat. V 

Distance along V1 V2  D.Long.V V

1 2
limiting latitude cosLat.V
Where D.Long. V V 
1 2 AB 
 D.Long. AV  D.Long. BV
1 2

D.Long.

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Example 12 Find the initial course, final course, meridians of the vertices and
the total distance of the following great circle positions if the
limiting latitude is 38° S:

From A: 3455S 05610W

To B: 3355S 01825E

 cos38
Initial course   1  cosLat. V   1 
sin  sin   7356.8
 cosLat. A   cos3455 
Initial course  S73.9E 
106.1T
Final course
cosLat.V  
cosLat.  sin1  cos38 
  sin1  7143.7
cos3355 
 B  

Final course  N71.7E  071.7T

Meridians of the D.Long. AV  1  tanLat. A   1

 tan3455   
tanLat.
vertices cos
1
 V cos  tan38 
2641.4(E)
Long.V  5610W  2641.4(E)  2928.6W
1

D.Long. BV  1  tanLat. B   1
 tan3355  
tanLat.
cos
2
 V cos  tan38   3036.8(W)

Long.V  3036.8(W)  1825E 

2

1211.8W
Distance AV1 and BV2 AV1  1  sinLat. A   1
 sin3455   
cos  V  cos
sinLat.  sin38 
2131.7
Distance AV1  1296.7miles

BV2  1  sinLat. B   1
 sin3355   
sinLat.
cos  V cos  sin38 
2459.9
Distance BV2  1499.9miles

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Distance V1V2 1 2

D.Long. V V  D.Long.AB  D.Long. AV  D.Long. BV
1 2

   2641.4  3036.8
 5610  1825

 1716.8  1036.8

V1 V2  D.Long.V V cosLat.V  1036.8 cos38 

817
1 2

Distance V1 V2  817miles
Total Distance  1296.7  1499.9  817  3613.6
miles

Example 13 A composite great circle route from 35°40´ N 140°00´ E to 37°30´N

120°00´W. Limited latitude is 45°. Find initial and final course,
longitudes of the vertices and total distance:

From A: 3540N 140E

To B: 3730N 120W

Initial course   1  cosLat. V   1  cos45   60.5

  cos3540 
sin cosLat. A  sin
Initial Course  N60.5E 
060.5T

Final course  cosLat.V  cos45

1  
 63
  sin1   sin


 cosLat. B   cos3730
Final Course  S63E  180 63 
117T
Meridians
(longitudes) of the 1  tanLat. A  tan3540   
D.Long. AV  cos  1

 tanLat. V   tan 45  4408.2(E)

1

vertices
cos

Long.V 1  360  140E  4408.2   17551.8W

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

D.Long. BV  1  tanLat. B   1
 tan3730   
tanLat.
cos
2
 V cos  tan 45  3953.1(W)
Long.V  120W  3953.1 
2

15953.1W

Distance AV1 and BV2 AV1  1  sinLat. A   1

 sin3540   
sinLat.
cos  V cos  sin45  3427.2
Distance AV1  2067.2miles

BV2  1  sinLat. B   1
 sin3730   
sinLat.
cos  V cos  sin45  3034.8
Distance BV2  1834.8miles

Distance V1V2 D. Long. V V  Long.V 

1 2 V 1 2
Long.
 17551.8  15953.1  1558.7
958.7
V1 V2  D.Long.V V cosLat.V  958.7 cos45 
1 2
677.9
Distance V V 
1 2
677.9miles
Total Distance  2067.2  1834.8  677.9  4579.9
miles
Using ABC Tables The ABC tables can be used to find the initial and final courses
for Great Circle similarly to finding the azimuth. For finding the initial course, the
Sailing departure latitude is used as DR latitude; destination latitude is
used as declination, and D. Long. is used as hour angle with
direction east or west. Similarly for finding final course,
destination latitude becomes DR latitude, departure latitude
becomes destination and same hour angle except direction is
opposite in initial course case. Then the course is named according
to the direction (East or West), instead of the size of the hour angle.

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

Example 14 Using the ABC table, find the initial and final courses of great circle
sailing:

From A: 4824N 12444W

To B: 3450N 13950E

D.Long.AB  360 12444 

Initial course 13950  9526(W) A 0.11 N

Lat.B 4824N

Lat. A 3450N  B 0.
D.Long.AB 9526(W)

Azimuth  N61.7W 70 N
Initial Course  N61.7W 
C 0.81 N
298.3T
Final course
Lat.B 3450N  A 0.07 N
1.13 N
Lat. A 4824N  B
D.Long.AB 9526(E)

Azimuth  N45.4E C 1.20 N

Final Course  S45.4W 
225.4T

Example 15 Find initial course and final course of great circle sailing:

From A: 3322S 11308E

To B: 1051S 04916E

D.Long.AB  11308  4916 

Initial course Lat.B 3322S  A 0.32 N
6352(W)  B
Lat. A 1051S  0.21 S
D.Long.AB 6352(W)
C 0.11 N
Azimuth  N84.8W
Initial Course  N84.8W 
275.2T
Final course Lat.B 1051S  A 0.09 N

Lat. A 3322S  B 0.73 S

D.Long.AB 6352(E)
C 0.64 S
Azimuth  S57.9E
Final Course  N57.9W 
302.1T

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

The values A, B, and azimuth can also be computed by formulas:

tanLat. A tanLat. B 1 
Azimuth   
A B 1

 tanP  sinP tan C  cosLat.A 

Where P is difference of longitude Between A and B positions, then

the above example can be solved as follows:

Initial course Lat.A : latitude of observer

Lat.B : declination of celestial body
D. Long.: hour angle (W)
Initial course: azimuth

Lat.A  3322S Lat.B 

1051S D.Long.AB  P  LHA 

6352(W)
tanLat.A 3322  A 0.323093 N
A tanP  tan6352  0.323093 N
 B 0.213489 S
tanLat.B 1051  0.213489 S  C 0.109603 N
B  
sinP
sin6352 1  1  0.1096031 cos3322 

Azimuth ()  tan1  
 CcosLat. A  tan  

8446.2

Azimuth  N8446.2W  N84.8W
Initial course  N84.8W 
275.2T
Final course Lat.B : latitude of observer
Lat.A : declination of celestial body
D. Long.: hour angle (opposite direction of HA in initial course)
Final course: azimuth

At final position, direction of movement of the ship is away from

initial position, not toward, so the azimuth found must be added to or
subtracted from 180° to find correct heading of the ship.

Lat.B  1051N Lat.A  3322 N

D.Long.AB  P  LHA  4858(E)

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

tanLat.B 1051 A 0.094034 N

A   0.094034 N
 B 0.733532 S
tanP
tanLat.A 3322
B  sinP  sin6352  0.733532 S  C 0.639498 S
tan6352 

1
  1 
Azimuth ()  tan1   tan1 
 CcosLat. B  0.639498 cos1051 

5752.1

Azimuth S5752.1E  S57.9E
Final course  N57.9W 
302.1T

Example 16 Find initial course and final course by using the ABC computation
formula:

From A: 5620N 00812W

To B: 5212N 05710W

Initial course Lat.A  5620N Lat.B 

5212N
tanLat.   A1.306619 S
A  AB tanP
D.Long. tan 4858
 P  LHA 1.306619 S
(W)
56204858  B 1.709061 N
tanLat. 
B sinP sin  1.709061 N  C 0.402442 N
52124858 

1  1  0.4024421 cos5620 

Azimuth ()  tan1  
 CcosLat. A  tan  

7725.4

Azimuth  N7725.4 W 
N77.4W Initial course  N77.4W
 282.6T
Final course
Lat.B  5212N Lat.A 

5620N D.Long.AB  P  LHA 

tanLat. 5212
A  tanP
4858 (E)  tan
B
 1.121995 S  A 1.121995 S
4858  B 1.990286 N
tanLat.A 5620
B sinP  sin  1.990286 N C 0.868291 N

4858

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK

 NAVIGATION

1
  1 
Azimuth ()  tan1   tan1 
 CcosLat. B  0.868291 cos5212 

6158.7

Azimuth N6158.7E 
N62E Final course  S62W 
242T
Example 17 Find initial course and final course of great circle sailing from Suva
to Honolulu:
Suva (A): 1808S
17826E Honolulu (B): 2119N
15752W
Initial course Lat.A  1808S Lat.B 

2119N D.Long.AB  P  LHA 

2342
tanLat.A 1808 A 0.746053 N
A   0.746053 N 
 B 0.970820 N
tanP
tanLat.B 2119  C 1.716873 N
sinP  sin2342  0.970820 N
B  tan2342

1  
 
1
 1.7168731 cos1808 
Azimuth ()  tan1   
 CcosLat. A  tan

3130.2

Azimuth  N3130.2E  N31.5E
Initial course  N31.5E 
031.5T
Final course Lat.B  2119N Lat.A  1808
S
D.Long.AB  P  LHA  2342W

tanLat.
 
A tanP tan2342  0.888943 S A 0.888943 S
2119
tanLat. 1808  B 0.814769 S
B  sinP sin2342  0.814769 S  1.703712 S
 C

1
  1 
Azimuth ()  tan1   tan1 
 CcosLat. B  1.703712 cos2119 

3212.8

Azimuth S3212.8W 
S32.2W Final course  N32.2E
 032.2T

CAPT. KHAN THE SHIP OFFICER’S HANDBOOK