Unit 4

Sampling Design and Methods

• A sample is a subset,
or some part, of a
larger whole.
• A complete group of
entities sharing some
common set of
characteristics is
population.
Sampling Design
• Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals
from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the
whole population.
Definition: According to Gerald Hursh “A Sample Design is the
theoretical basis and the practical means by which we infer the
characteristics of some population by generalizing from the
characteristics of relatively few of the units comprising the population”.
Steps in Sampling Design –
Sampling Procedure
1. Define the population or universe
2. State the sampling frame
3. Identify the sampling unit
4. State sampling method
5. Determine the sample size
6. Spell out the sampling plan
7. Select the sample
Sample Procedures or Techniques
• PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING Technique
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Technique
Determination of Sample size
Key Factors for Sample Size
Determination
• Effect Size: This refers to the magnitude of the difference or relationship being studied. A
smaller effect size requires a larger sample to detect statistically significant differences.
• Population Standard Deviation: This is an estimate of the variability
within the population. A higher standard deviation indicates greater
variability, necessitating a larger sample size to achieve reliable results.
• Power of the Study: The power of a statistical test is the probability
that it will correctly reject a false null hypothesis (i.e., detect an effect
when there is one). Commonly, researchers aim for a power level of
0.80, meaning there is an 80% chance of detecting an effect if it exists.
• Significance Level (α): This is the threshold for determining whether
an observed effect is statistically significant, often set at 0.05 or 0.01. A
lower significance level increases the required sample size.
• Margin of Error: This defines how much error is acceptable in the
results. A smaller margin of error requires a larger sample size to ensure
that the results are close to the true population parameters
What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a tentative
• Theory,
• Answer,
• Relationship,
• Assumption,
• Imagination,
• Conclusion or
• Solution
to the Research Question
It should be based on existing theories and knowledge.
 HYPOTHESIS IS

Probably True Probably False

An Hypothesis which has a An Hypothesis which has a

very good chance of being very poor chance of being
accepted accepted
or found true or found true

The probability of drinking 2 The probability of drinking

cups of tea/coffee is very 50 cups of tea/coffee is very
high low
Probable Improbable
Acceptable Rejectionable
 Types of Hypotheses
DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESIS
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby
it is also called as Univariate hypothesis.
Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size,
form, or distribution of some variable.
Ex: It only shows the distribution of the level of commitment
among the officers of the organization which is higher than
average.
Researchers usually use research questions rather than
descriptive hypothesis.
For example a question can be: What is the level of
commitment of the officers in your organization?
RELATIONAL HYPOTHESIS
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two
variables. The relationship could be non-directional or directional, positive or
negative, causal or simply correlational.
Ex: Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with
their level of efficiency.
The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their
level of absenteeism.

These hypotheses are relational as well as directional.

The directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the relationship
has been specified.
Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association
has not been specified.
The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or negative has
not been postulated.
Ex: Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of
efficiency.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the
researcher.
Symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as “H0”.
Ex: H0 =
• There is no relationship between the level of job commitment
and the level of efficiency. Or
• The relationship between level of job commitment and the level
of efficiency is zero. Or
The two variables are independent of each other.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a
relationship between the variables
Symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as “H1”.
Ex: H1=
• There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of
the officers and their level of efficiency.
Variables in Hypotheses: Independent and
Dependent Variables
The independent variable can cause a change in the dependent variable,
but the dependent variable cannot cause a change in the independent
variable.
For example:
• How does the amount of makeup one applies affect how clear their
skin is?
• Raising the temperature of a cup of coffee will increase the
amount of sugar that dissolves
 Here, the independent variable is the makeup, and the dependent
variable is the skin.
The variables are important because they help determine the cause
and effect.
In above example, the hypothesis could be:
• The amount of makeup one wears correlates to how clear their skin
is.
• The temperature is the independent variable. The amount of sugar
is the dependent variable
Therefore, this hypothesis must be tested before it can be proven correct.
Tips in framing hypothesis
• The question comes first: Before you make a hypothesis, you
have to clearly identify the question you are interested in
studying.
• A hypothesis is a statement, not a question: Your hypothesis
is not the scientific question in your project. The hypothesis is
an educated, testable prediction about what will happen.
• Make it clear: A good hypothesis is written in clear and
simple language. Reading your hypothesis should tell or judge
exactly what you thought was going to happen when you
started your project.
• Keep the variables in mind: A good hypothesis defines the
variables in easy-to-measure terms, like who the participants
are, what changes during the testing, and what the effect of the
changes will be.
Cont’d
• Make sure your hypothesis is “testable”: To prove or disprove your
hypothesis, you need to be able to do an experiment and take
measurements or make observations to see how two things (your
variables) are related. You should also be able to repeat your experiment
over and over again, if necessary.
To create a "testable" hypothesis make sure you have done all of these things:
• Thought about what experiments you will need to carry out to do the
test.
• Identified the variables in the project.
• Included the independent and dependent variables in the hypothesis
statement. (This helps ensure that your statement is specific enough.
• Do your research: You may find many studies similar to yours have
already been conducted. What you learn from available research and data
can help you shape your project and hypothesis.
• Don't bite off more than you can chew! Answering some scientific
questions can involve more than one experiment, each with its own
hypothesis. Make sure your hypothesis is a specific statement relating to
a single experiment.
Formulate your hypothesis
with examples
• Ask a question - Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?
• Do some preliminary research
• Formulate your hypothesis - Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.
• Refine your hypothesis - The relevant variables, The specific group being studied, The
predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis.
• Phrase your hypothesis
• If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
• The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam
scores.
• First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those
who attended few lectures.
• Write a Null & Alternative hypothesis
H0: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final
exam scores.
H1: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their
final exam scores.
Examples of types of Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis (DV and IDV)
• Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to being overweight
• Getting at least 8 hours of sleep can make people more alert.
Complex Hypothesis (Relationship between variables)
• Adults who 1) drink sugary beverages on a daily basis and 2) have a family history of health issues are more likely to 1)
become overweight and 2) develop diabetes or other health issues.
• Individuals who 1) get an average of eight or more hours of sleep and 2) have a balanced diet and schedule are more likely
to 1) be alert during the day and 2) have more energy.
Null Hypothesis (No difference between characteristics of population)
• There is no significant change in a person’s health during the times when they drink green tea only
• There is no significant change in an individual’s work habits whether they get eight hours or nine hours of sleep
Alternative Hypothesis (Contradictory to the null hypothesis)
• A person’s health improves during the times when they drink green tea only
• Work habits improve during the times when one gets 8 hours of sleep only, as opposed to 9 hours of sleep only.
Cont’d
Logical Hypothesis (Proposed explanation using limited evidence)

• Beings from Mars would not be able to breathe the air in Earth's atmosphere.
• Creatures found at the bottom of the ocean use anaerobic respiration rather than aerobic respiration.
Empirical Hypothesis (Working hypothesis - theory is being put to the test using observation and
experiment)

• Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid Vitamin E
• Thirsty rats find their way through a maze quicker if there is water at the end of the maze
Statistical Hypothesis (examination of a portion of a population or statistical model)

• 50% of Japan's population live beyond the age of 70.

• 45% of the poor in the U.S. are illiterate.
Reject or Accept
• When your p-value is less than or equal to your significance level
(either 0.05 or 0.01), you reject the null hypothesis.
• When your p-value is greater than your significance level, you fail to
reject the null hypothesis.
 Two Types of Errors

TYPE I ERROR TYPE II ERROR

• Type I Error occurs when a • Type II Error occurs when a
Hypothesis is rejected when it Hypothesis is accepted when it
should have been accepted as should have been rejected as
true false

• Acceptable hypothesis is rejected • Rejectable hypothesis is accepted

 Two Types of Errors

Accept the Hypothesis Reject the Hypothesis

Hypothesis is True Correct Decision Type I Error

Hypothesis is False Type II Error Correct Decision

 gftgjbbbbbbbb
gftgjbbbbbbbb
gftgjbbbbbbbb
bbbbbbbbbbb
bbbbbbbbbbb
bbbbbbbbbbb
b bb
When Type I & Type II of Errors
Type I Error Type II Error

When we reject the When we accept the

TRUTH FALSE

How to avoid
Type I & Type II Errors?
ACCEPT the TRUTH REJECT the FALSE
Overall