DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY
BURIE CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT COMPUTER
SCIENCES
Automata and Complexity Theory
1
outlines
Introduction
Alphabet
Strings
Languages
Grammars
Automata
2
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Formal language is an abstract of the general
characteristic of programming language.
It is developed with strict rules.
It is the set of all strings permitted by the rules of
formation.
It consists of a set of symbols and some rules of
formation by which these symbols can be
combined into entities called sentences.
3
Introduction to Complexity Theory
Complexity theory is concerned with questions such as whether a
problem can be solved within certain limited computing resources,
typically space or time.
Computability theory asks questions such as: do there exist problems
unsolvable by any
effective procedure.
Whereas computability theory is concerned with unsolvable
problems and the boundary between solvable and unsolvable
problems, complexity theory analyses the set of solvable problems.
Alphabet
It is finite set of symbols and denoted by
Example
1 = {a, b, c, d, …, z}: the set of letters in
English
2 = {0, 1, …, 9}: the set of (base 10) digits
3 = {a, b, …, z, #}: the set of letters plus the
special symbol #
4 = {(, )}: the set of open and closed brackets
5
Strings
it is finite set of symbols over
a, b
We will use small alphabets:
a
Strings
ab u ab
abba v bbbaaa
baba w abba
aaabbbaabab
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String Operations
w a1a2 an abba
v b1b2 bm bbbaaa
Concatenation
wv a1a2 anb1b2 bm abbabbbaaa
7
w a1a2 an ababaaabbb
Reverse
R
w an a2 a1 bbbaaababa
8
String Length
w a1a2 an
Length: w n
Examples: abba 4
aa 2
a 1
9
Recursive Definition of Length
For any letter: a 1
For any stringwa : wa w 1
Example: abba abb 1
ab 1 1
a 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4 10
Length of Concatenation
uv u v
Example: u aab, u 3
v abaab, v 5
uv aababaab 8
uv u v 3 5 8
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Empty String
A string with no letters:
Observations: 0
w w w
abba abba abba
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Substring
Substring of string:
a subsequence of consecutive
characters
String Substring
abbab ab
abbab abba
abbab b
abbab bbab
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Prefix and Suffix
abbab
Prefixes Suffixes
abbab w uv
a bbab
prefix
ab bab
suffix
abb ab
abba b
abbab
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Another Operation
n
w ww
w
n
2
Example: abba abbaabba
0
Definition: w
0
abba
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The * Operation
* : the set of all possible strings from
alphabet
a, b
* , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,
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The + Operation
: the set of all possible strings from
alphabet except
a, b
* , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,
*
a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,
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Language
*
A language is any subset of
Example: a, b
* , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa,
Languages:
a, aa, aab
{ , abba, baba, aa, ab, aaaaaa} 18
Another Example
n n
An infinite language L {a b : n 0}
ab L abb L
aabb
aaaaabbbbb
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Operations on Languages
The usual set operations
a, ab, aaaa bb, ab {a, ab, bb, aaaa}
a, ab, aaaa bb, ab {ab}
a, ab, aaaa bb, ab a, aaaa
Complement: L * L
20
Reverse
R R
Definition: L {w : w L}
Examples:ab, aab, baba R
ba, baa, abab
n n
L {a b : n 0}
R n n
L {b a : n 0}
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Concatenation
Definition: L1L2 xy : x L1, y L2
Example:a, ab, bab, aa
ab, aaa, abb, abaa, bab, baaa
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Another Operation
Definition: n
L LL L
n
3
a, b a, ba, ba, b
aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb
0
Special case: L
a, bba, aaa0
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Star-Closure (Kleene *)
0 1 2
Definition: L* L L L
Example:
,
a, bb,
a, bb*
aa , abb, bba , bbbb,
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
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Positive Closure
1 2
Definition: L L L
L *
a, bb,
a, bb aa, abb, bba, bbbb,
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
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Examples of language generated by
RE
a | b = {a,b}
2- (a|b)a = {aa,ba}
3- (ab) | ε ={ab, ε}
4- ((a|b)a)* = {ε, aa,ba,aaaa,baba,....}
5- (a | c)*b(a|c)* ={b, abc, abaca, baaaac,
ccbaca, cccccb} (construct its DFA)
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Grammar
Grammar is a mechanism to describe the languages.
A grammar (G) is defined as a quadruple
G = (V, T, S, P)
where
V = Finite set of objects called VARIABLES
T = Finite set of objects called TERMINAL SYMBOLS
S ∈ V = Start variables
P = Finite set of Productions.
A production rule P is of the form X Y
27
Con--
Given a grammar G defined by the
production rules
S ->AB
A ->Aa
B ->Bb
A-> a
B ->b
Show that the word w = a2b4 is L(G)
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Automata
An abstract machine which can be used to implement
regular expressions .
Has a finite number of states, and a finite amount of
memory (i.e., the current state).
Can be represented by directed graphs or transition
tables
type of automata
Deterministic finite automata (DFA)
Non deterministic finite automata(NDFA)
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Deterministic Finite Automata
A deterministic finite automaton (DFA) is
a 5-tuple (Q, , , q0, F) where
Q is a finite set of states
is an input alphabet
: Q × → Q is a transition function
q0 Q is the initial state
F Q is a set of accepting states (or final
states).
In diagrams, the accepting states will be
denoted by double loops
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Language of a DFA
The language of a DFA (Q, , , q0, F) is the
set of
all strings over that, starting from q0 and
following the transitions as the string is
read left
to right, will reach some accepting state.
A deterministic finite automaton is a special case of an
NFA
No state has an ε-transition
For each state Q and input symbol a there is at most one
edge labeled a leaving S
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Transition Graph
Abba -Finite Accepter a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
initial final
state state
transition
state “accept”
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Initial Configuration
Input String
a b b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Reading the Input
a b b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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a b b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
35
a b b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
36
a b b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
37
a b b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
Output: “accept”
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Rejection
a b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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a b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
40
a b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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a b a
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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a b a
a, b
Output:
q5 “reject”
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Another Example
a a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
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a a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
45
a a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
46
a a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
47
a a b
a a, b
Output: “accept”
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
48
Rejection
b a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
49
b a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
50
b a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
51
b a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
52
b a b
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
Output: “reject”
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Input Aplhabet
a, b
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Set of States Q
Q q0 , q1, q2 , q3 , q4 , q5
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Initial State q0
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Set of Final States F
F q4
a, b
q5
a, b
b a a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Transition Function
: Q Q
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
58
q0 , a q1
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
59
q0 , b q5
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
60
q2 , b q3
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Transition Function
a b
q0 q1 q5
q1 q5 q2
q2 q2 q3
q3 q4 q5 a, b
q4 q5 q5
q5 q5 q5 q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Extended Transition Function *
* : Q * Q
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
63
* q0 , ab q2
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
64
* q0 , abba q4
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
65
* q0 , abbbaa q5
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
66
Observation: There is a walk fromq0 to q5
with label abbbaa
* q0 , abbbaa q5
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Recursive Definition
* q, q
* q, wa ( * (q, w), a )
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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* q0 , ab
* (q0 , a),b
* q0 , , a , b
q0 , a , b
q1, b
q2 a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
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Languages Accepted by DFAs
Take DFA M
Definition:
The languageLM contains
M
all input strings accepted by
LM M
= { strings that drive to a final
state}
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Example
LM abba M
a, b
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
accept
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Another Example
LM , ab, abba M
a, b
q5
b a a a, b
b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
accept accept accept
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Formally
For a DFA M Q, , , q0 , F
M
Language accepted by :
LM w * : * q0 , w F
alphabet transition initial final
function state states
73
Observation
M
Language accepted by :
LM w * : * q0 , w F
Language rejected byM :
LM w * : * q0 , w F
74
More Examples
n
LM {a b : n 0}
a a, b
b a, b
q0 q1 q2
accept trap state
75
LM= { all substrings with prefix ab }
a, b
q0 a q1 b q2
b a accept
q3 a, b
76
Example’s on DFA
77
Transition table
78
79
Con…
80
questions
1.Construct a DFA that accepts the
language
L = {010, ( = {0, 1}
1} )
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Con--
2.Construct a DFA over alphabet {0, 1} that accepts all strings that
end in 101.
3. Construct a DFA which accepts set of all strings over {a,b} that
starts with a string abb
4.Construct a DFA which accepts set of all strings over {0,1}.
5. Construct a DFA which accepts a set of all strings over {a,b} of the
form a3bwa3 where w is any string.
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Non-Deterministic Finite Automata
(NFA)
Non determinism means a choice of moves for an
automaton. Rather than prescribing a, unique
move in each satiation.
it allows a set of possible moves.
83
Con..
In non deterministic finite accepter the range of
transition function is the power set of 2 the
power of Q,
so that its value is not a single element of Q, but
a subset of it.
This subset defines the set of all possible states
that can be reached by the transition.
For examples:
84
Non-Deterministic Finite Automata
Definition
An NFA M consists of five tuples: ( Σ,S, T, S0, F)
A set of input symbols Σ, the input alphabet
a finite set of states S,
a transition function T: S × (Σ U { ε}) -> S (next state),
a start state S0 from S, and
a set of accepting/final states F from S.
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NFA…
It is a finite automata which has choice of
edges
The same symbol can label edges from one state to
several different states.
An edge may be labeled by ε, the empty
string
We can have transitions without any input character
consumption.
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Transition Graph
The transition graph for an NFA recognizing the
language of regular expression (a|b)*abb
all strings of a's and b's ending in the
particular string abb
a
start a b b
0 1 2 3
b S={0,1,2,3}
Σ={a,b}
S0=0
F={3}
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