ECE/TCE 2207: INSTRUMENTATION &
PROCESS DYNAMICS CONTROL
by ENGR STANFORD MUDONO
SEMESTER: 2.2 ACADEMIC YEAR: 24/25
Topic 1.0 Instrumentation & Measurement: ECE/TCE 2207
Learning objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Components of an instrument
1.3 Factors to be considered in selecting an instrument
1.4 Dynamic characteristics of measurement instruments
1.5 Instrumentation
1.5.1Temperature measurement
1.5.2 Pressure measurement
1.5.3 Flow rate measurement
1.5.4 Level measurement
1.5.5 Composition measurement
Text books
• Bruce Postlethwaite: Essential Process Control for Chemical Engineers, 1st Edition, 2017.
• D. A. Mellichamp and D.E Edgar: Process Dynamics and Control, John Wiley and Son, NY; 1989
• G. Stephanopoulos: Chemical Process Control and Chemical Modelling, 3rd Edition; 2008
• R.K. Sinnot: Coulson and Richardson: Chemical Engineering Series; Vol. 6: 4th Edition; 2005
• S.G. Rabinovich, Evaluating Measurement Accuracy: A Practical Approach, Springer Science + Business Media New York 2013
Learning Objectives:
The student after going through the lesson would be able to:
• Name different types of measuring instruments and their process measurements in
chemical processing industries
• Explain the basic meaning of different types of measuring instruments in control
systems of chemical industrial process variables
• Distinguish between the principles of operation of different instrument
measurements in control of process variables in chemical process industries
• Differentiate characteristics of different measurement instruments in control
systems of chemical industrial processes
• Select the proper instrument for a particular range of measurement in control
process systems of chemical industrial processes
• Evaluate and design appropriate measuring devices for control of chemical
industrial processes
1.1 Introduction
What is an Instrument?
• An instrument is a device used to monitor the important process
variables in a chemical plant that allow the operating conditions
of the process to be determined.
It may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the
manual monitoring of the process operation
It may also be part of an automatic computer data logging system
• Three traditional classes of use of measurement instruments :
Fundamental data for experimental engineering analysis , research,
design and development
Control and monitoring of processes and operations
1.2 Components of an Instrument
• These are devices that convert some physical quantity that we want to measure
(Fig 1.1): (e.g. temperature, pressure, etc.) into some sort of signal that can be
processed further e.g. a thermocouple converts a temperature difference into a
voltage; a piezo resistive pressure sensor converts a pressure into a change in
electrical resistance.
Fig 1.1 (a) Sensor and transducer packed Fig 1.1 (b) Transducer as part of the
Sensing element
• This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some
way on the variable to be measured.
• Examples are:
Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
• If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with
the process is termed the primary sensing element, the others are secondary
sensing elements.
Transducer is a measuring instrument that converts the measurement
signals into a form suitable for transmission, processing, or storage.
• Common Types of Measuring transducers are: Thermocouples, resistance
thermometers, measuring shunts, and the measuring electrodes of pH meters, etc.
Signal conditioning is the signal processing that is applied to the
output of the transducer
A transmitter is a device that converts the output from signal
conditioning into a signal that is compatible with the communication
system being used in the plant
• An instrument is a device that contains at least one but usually more
and often all of the above (transducer, signal conditioning, transmitter
and data) Fig 1.1.
• An instrument is a complete measurement package that senses the
quantity to be measured and presents that measurement in a form
suitable for use, e.g. a packaged RTD (resistance temperature device) –
it will include the RTD, signal conditioning and transmitter.
• The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process,
as shown in Fig 1.2
Fig 1.2 Purpose of a measurement system
• The measurement system consists of several elements or blocks.
• It is possible to identify four types of element (Fig 1.3), although in a given
system one type of element may be missing or may occur more than once.
Fig1.3 General structure of a measurement system
1.3 Factors to be considered in selecting an
instrument
1.3.1 Range
• Is the measured quantity over which the instrument will give a reliable output
1.3.2 Span
• Is an adjustable parameter, or the distance the measured quantity has to move to
drive the instrument output from its minimum value to its maximum value
1.3.3 Accuracy and Precision (Fig 1.4)
• Accuracy of a measurement describes how close the measurement approaches
the true value of the process variable and is often expressed as a % error over a
range or an absolute error over a range.
• Precision is the reproducibility with which repeated measurements can be made
under identical conditions and may also be referred to as stability or drift and is
always required for good control, even when accuracy is not required.
Fig 1.4 Accuracy vs. precision
1.4 Dynamic characteristics of measurement
instruments
• The dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments reflect
the relation between the change in the output signal and an
action that produces this change (the input).
• The complete dynamic characteristics determine uniquely the
change in time of the output signal caused by a change in the
input signal or by other action.
Examples of such characteristics include a differential equations,
transfer functions, amplitude-and phase-frequency responses, and
the transient responses.
• If x(t) is the signal at the input of a measuring instrument and y(t) is the
corresponding signal at the output, then the relation between them can
be expressed with the help of first-order (eqn.1) or second-order (eqn.2)
differential equations, respectively, which reflect the dynamic
properties of the measuring instrument:
• T is the time constant of a first-order device, K is the transduction
coefficient in the static state, ωo is the angular frequency of free
oscillations, and β is the damping ratio.
Application of Laplace transform
• Thus:
• Where, s is the Laplace operator.
• For the first-order system, in accordance to eqn.1 we obtain:
• For the second-order system from eqn.2, we obtain:
• Let us consider the second-order equation in more detail.
• If in the transfer function the operator s is replaced by the complex
frequency jω (s = jω), then we obtain the complex frequency response.
• Studying the relation between the characteristics for a second-order
system, eqns.2 & 3, we obtain:
• where, ω = 2πf is the running angular frequency.
• The complex frequency response is often represented with its real and
imaginary parts:
• In this case:
• The complex frequency response can also be represented in the form:
• where, A(ω) is the amplitude-frequency response and φ(ω) is the
frequency response of phase.
• In the case at hand:
• Eqns. 5 & 6, have a well-known graphical interpretation using the
notion of transient response.
1.5 Instrumentation Measurements
1.5.1 Instruments for Temperature Measurements
• Temperature measurement is one of the most common measurements
in a chemical plant.
• Temperature is measured via different diverse array of sensors and all
of them infer temperature by sensing some change in the physical
characteristic.
• There are four basic types of temperature measuring devices:
Mechanical (liquid-in- Glass tube thermometers, bimetallic strips, bulb and
capillary, pressure type, etc.)
Thermo-junctive (Thermocouples)
Thermo-resistive (RTD and Thermistors)
Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers)
Resistance Thermometer Detectors (RTDs):
• The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally
modeled in the form:
• where; R1and Ro are the resistance values at t°C and t 0°C,
respectively;α, β, etc. are constants that depends on the metal.
• For a small range of temperature, the expression can be approximated
as:
• For copper, α = 0.00427/°C
Thermistor
• They are semiconductor type resistance thermometers, have very high sensitivity
but highly nonlinear characteristics (NTC and PTC thermistors).
• Their characteristics can be expressed as:
• where,
RT is the resistance at temperature, T (K)
Ro is the resistance at temperature, To (K)
To is the reference temperature, normally 25°C
β is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, and the nominal
value is taken as 4000.
• From equation 3, the resistance temperature coefficient can be obtained as:
Thermocouple
• Is a senor made from two wires with dissimilar thermo-electric
properties (i.e. heat liberates electrons to different extents).
• The wires are joined at each end and a small voltage is generated
which is proportional to the differences between the temperatures at
the two ends of the device.
• The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the
relationship:
• where,
T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K
C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the materials
1.5.2 Pressure measurement
• Pressure measurement is very important in chemical plants both
as a fundamental measurement and also as an implied
measurement of flowrate and level.
• Pressure measurements can be classified into 4 main categories:
1. Gauge pressure
2. Absolute pressure
3. Vacuum pressure
4. Differential pressure (DPC)
• Static Pressure measurement:
• Fluid Pressure calculation:
1.5.3 Flow measurement
• Differential pressure devices:
Orifice plates
Nozzles
Venturi meters
Pitot meters
• where,
Cd is the discharge coefficient
A1 cross-sectional area of the pipe (m 2),
A2 cross-sectional area of the orifice (m 2),
Fig 1.5 Venturi meter
1.5.4 Level Measurement
• The measurement and control of liquid level with a chemical
plant is one of the most important functions of the
instrumentations.
• Liquid level controllers maintain the overall process mass
balance and also maintain liquid seals
Differential pressure measurements
Capacitance measurements
Ultrasonic and radar measurements
Dipsticks
Sight glasses
1.5.5 Composition measurement
• The measurement of composition is one of the most desired
but also most difficult and expensive measurements that have
to be made in chemical and process plants.
pH meters
Chemical analyzers
