CELL

ULTRASTRUCTURE
 THE CELL
One of the marvels of nature is the creation of tiny yet
potent biological compartments i.e. CELL.
• Either one, two or many more millions of cells go to
make the body of the living being.
• It is a structural and functional unit of living things.
• Word cell has been derived from Latin word cellula
means small compartment.
• Cell term was used by Robert Hooke (1665) in his
book Micrographic
There has been some mention about cell in ancient
Indian literature also.
• Parasara (1st century BC) in his book Vrkshayurveda
refers to invisible compartments in the leaf and names
them Rasakosha.
HISTORICAL EVENTS
HISTORY EVENTS (CYTOLOGY AND GENETICS)
Year Events
1665 R. Hooke – Introduced the term “cell”
1830 J. E. Purkinje– Introduced the term “protoplasm”
1833 Brown discovered the cell nucleus in flowering plant
Tredescantia
1834 Von Mohl described cell division and emphasized the importance
of protoplasm
1838 M. J. Schleiden – cell concept in plants “Cell theory”
1839 T. Schwann applied the cell concept to animals “Cell theory”
1846 K. Nageli showed that plant cells arise from the division of pre-
existing cells
1855 R. Virchow – confirmed the principle that cell arise only from pre-
existing cells. (Omnis cellula e cellula)
1865 G. Mendel (1822-1884) developed the fundamental principles of
heredity. “Father of Genetics”
1882 W. Fleming – proposed the term mitosis
1888 W. Waldeyer – introduced the term chromosome Strasburger
showed that the chromosome number is halved in the cell
when gametes are formed
1892 A. Weismann – Germplasm theory
1900 Karl Correns, Hugo de Vries and E. Tschermak
rediscovered the fundamental principles of heredity
1902 Mc - Clung identified the sex – chromosome in Hemiptera W.S.
Sutton showed significance of reduction division; proposed the
chromosome theory of heredity
1905 Farmer coined the term meiosis with J. E. Moore
1906 Bateson coined the term “Genetics”
1909 Johannsen coined the terms Gene, Genotypes and Phenotypes
1915 T. H. Morgan – correlated genetic studies with cytological
studies in Drosophila
1927 Muller studied the mutation through X – rays in animals
1932 Knoll and Ruska produced first electron microscope
1946 Muller received the Noble Prize for radiation genetics work
1953 Watson and Crick proposed a model for the DNA molecules
1958 Beadle, Tatum and Lederberg received the Noble Prize for in
field of Genetics
1959 Sanger received the Noble Prize for determination of amino
acid sequence in insulin Ochoa received the Noble Prize for the
in vitro synthesis of polyribonucleotides
1959 Kornberg received the Noble Prize for the in vitro synthesis of
polydeoxy ribonucleotides
1962 Watson and Crick with Wilkins received the Noble Prize for
their model of the DNA molecule
1965 Lwoff, Monod and Jacob received the Noble Prize for the
concept of mRNA; Operon and episomes
1968 Holley, Khorana and Nirenberg received the Noble Prize for the
delineation of the genetic code and molecular mechanisms of
protein synthesis
 CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE

 Cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living

organisms. (except viruses)
 The basic constituents of plant and animal cells are the same,
viz., nucleic acid, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and various
inorganic substances.
 They organized in the same fundamental manner.
 The shape of plant cell is rectangular and that of animal cell
is round with irregular appearance.
 SHAPE AND SIZE OF CELL
The shape of the cell may be variable as in the case of
Amoeba or fixed. When the shape is fixed or permanent, all
conceivable shapes are found i.e. spherical, rectangular,
flattened, polygonal, oval, triangular, cone like, columnar
etc.
As in Acetabularia plant– single cell– rhizoid like base, a long
and slender stalk and an umbrella like cape.
Ascospores of Claviceps– acicular (needle like shape).
There is a great range of variation among the size, not
visible or barely visible or macroscopic.
Smallest cell– Coccus bacteria– 0.2 to 0.5 micron
Largest cell– Ostrich egg– 15 cms.
 GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF CELL
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 A generalised plant cell has an outermost envelop
called cell wall (absent in animal cells).
 Internal to this is plasma membrane. This

encloses the nucleus and other cytoplasmic

inclusions suspended in cytoplasm.
 The chief cytoplasmic inclusions are-Ribosomes,

Lysosomes, Mitochondria, Plastids, Golgi

complex, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Vacuole
and non living inclusions like crystal, Raphids
etc.
 Prokaryotic: nucleus is not properly organised

 Eukaryotic: nucleus is organised

 STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Nucleus is absent and not surrounded by The nucleus is enclosed by two concentric
membrane unit membrane
2. DNA is naked and not complex with DNA is complex with histone and non-
histones histone protein to form chromatin fibers
3. The amount of DNA per cell is small The amount of DNA per cell is many fold
fraction greater
4. Cytoplasm does not have E. R. and other Cytoplasm contains several membranous
except chromatophores in photosynthetic structures e.g. E.R., golgi bodies,
bacteria and blue green algae lysosomes etc.
5. Mitochondria and chloroplast absent but Cells contain mitochondria and chloroplast
algae have chloroplast without grana with grana
6. Spindle fibers are absent During cell division spindle fibers
organized
7. Chromosomes are attached to plasma Chromosomes ends are attached with the
lemma nuclear membrane
8. All ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm Most of the ribosomes are attached to E.R.
and some are free in cytoplasm
9. Nucleolus is absent Nucleolus is present in the nucleus
Plant cell
Animal cell
CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANELLES

 Cell: A basic unit of structure and function in all living

organisms.
 Plant cell: A structural and physiological unit of plant, which
have protoplasm.
 Cell organelles: various bound structures that are found
within a cell such as nucleus, plastids, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, etc.,
 CELL

Non-living inclusions Living materials

Nucleus Cytoplasm
1. Nuclear membrane 1. Plasma-membrane
2. Nucleoplasm 2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Chromatin 3. Ribosomes
4. Nucleolus 4. Golgi body
5. Vacuoles
6. Mitochondria
7. Plastids
8. Lysosomes
9. Centrosomes
10. Microtubules
CELL WALL
 Cell wall is mainly composed of Cellulose.
 It is the outermost part of the cell and is always non-living (Rigid

and Strong) but it is produced and nourished by living protoplasm.

 The cell wall is found only in plants and absent in animals and in

some prokaryotes.
 Multilayered viz., primary cell wall (dispersed arrangement),

middle lamella and secondary cell wall (parallel arrangement of

cellulose fibrils).
 Unique features of the cell wall is its permeability due to presence

of small pores.
Functions:
1. To protect inner parts of cell.
2. To give a definite shape of the cell.
3. To provide mechanical support.
PLASMODESMATA
 Protoplast of adjacent cells are connected to one another by
means of thin cytoplasmic threads called plasmodesmata.
 These pass through the small pores (pit fields) present in the cell

wall.
 Tubules which are in continuity in the endoplasmic retuculum

are seen within plasmodesmata thus maintaining an effective

intercellular communication.
PLASMA LEMMA OR PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The membrane enclosing cytoplasm of a cell is known as plasma
lemma or plasma membrane.
 The cytoplasm is surrounded on the outer side by a thin and flexible

membrane
 It presents both in plant and animal cell

 Composed of lipids and proteins

Functions:
1. It regulates the passage in and out of the cell
(Compartmentalization).
2. It acts as a selectively permeable membrane. It checks the entry of
toxic elements from out side into the cytoplasm.
3. It permits only passage for molecules like minerals into the cell and
restricts their outward movement.
4. Communication: Receptor molecules-mediate and control the
message from one another i.e., interaction between the cells.
 PROTOPLASM
 The substances that provide life plants/animals
 It is granular, semi fluid –translucent

 Protoplasm is differentiated into Cytoplasm and Nucleus

Cytoplasm:
 The substance, except nucleus, surrounded by the plasma lemma

is known as cytoplasm.
 There are a variety of structure remain suspended such as living

and non-living
 Non-living: not membrane bounded – lipid drops, starch

granules
 Living: they are membrane bounded
Cytoplasmic inclusions (Non-living):
 These are not metabolic active parts but they are storage sites

of end product
 Suspended in cytoplasmic matrix

 It includes oil drops, yolk granules, pigments, starch granules

etc.

Cytoplsmic organelles:
 Organells are membrane bounded, living structures

 They performed important activities like biosynthesis,

metabolic and respiratory

 They are also engaged in transportation and storage of food

material and reproduction

MICROTUBULES
 Microtubules are straight, hollow, tubular cylinders which make up the
cytoskeleton.
 They are responsible for structural support and transport of the cell.
 Complex structure made up of 13 individual protofilaments arrange to
form hallow cylinder
 Transportation of small molecules produce fibres during cell division
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (E.R.)
 Originally known as ergastroplasm.
 The term E. R. was first used by Porter in 1948 to describe a fine
reticulum in the endoplasmic cells.
 Endoplasmic means "within the cytoplasm", and reticulum means
"little net".
 The ER is an extensive membranous network within the cytoplasm.
 Morphologically the ER consist of three types of structures viz.,
Cistemae, Vesicles and Tubulues. All the three components are
bounded by a unit membrane.
 It is thread or tube like- floating in cytoplasm on which ribosomes are
attached.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (E.R.)
Two Types:

1. Smooth E. R.: also known as agranular ER

o Outer and inner surfaces are regular and they do not have attached
ribosome, no protein synthesis.
o Contain more lipid than rough ER.

2. Rough E. R.: also known as granular ER

o Outer and inner membrane found attached with ribosomes
o Rough ER is well developed in those cell which is actively involved in
protein synthesis.

Rough and Smooth ER change into each other as per needs of cells.
 FUNCTIONS: ER

The ER functions as a packaging system. It does not work alone.

The ER works closely with the Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, RNA,
mRNA and tRNA.

1. Rough ER plays important role in the synthesis and packaging

of proteins.

2. Smooth ER acts as a storage organelle.

3. ER acts as inter-cellular transport system for various substances.

4. ER provides passage for mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm.

5. Formation of nuclear envelop

 GOLGI COMPLEX OR DICTYOSOME
 Golgi complex was first describing by Camillo Golgi in 1890
in nerve cells of cat and owl
 A network of stacked membranous vesicles present in most

living cells that functions in the formation of secretions within

the cell are known as Golgi apparatus.
 Composed – lamellae, tubules, vesicles and vacuoles

Function:
1. Packaging of food materials such as proteins, lipids and
phospholipids for transport to other cells.
2. It secrete many granules and lysosomes (originated from
golgi bodies).
3. The golgi apparatus also protects against cell destruction
known as apoptosis
 LYSOSOMES

 Lysosomes (hydrolytic particles) were called pericanalicular

bodies, first discovered in 1949.
 The term Lysosome was first used by de Duve in 1955.

 Lysosomes are membrane bound organelles that are found

mainly in the animal cells.

 Greek word 'lysis' means destruction or dissolution or digestive

and 'soma' means body.

 In plant cell they are bounded storage granules and contain

hydrolytic digestive enzymes.

 Cell organelles with large number of digestive enzymes which

are used primarily for digestion of intracellular substances and

removal of excess or worn-out organelles, food particles and
engulfed viruses or bacteria.
 Help in destroying dead cells from tissue.
 LYSOSOMES

Function:
1. Digestion of intracellular substances and foreign
particles, which comes in the cell by pinocytosis
and phagocytosis. Thus lysosomes act as a disposal
system of the cell.
2. To repair the damage to the plasma membrane.

3. Lysosomes are also involved in programmes cell

death, or autolysis. This is the reason why
lysosomes are often called as 'suicide sacs'
 CYTOPLASMIC VACUOLES
 Vacuoles are storage bubbles found in cells.
 Small or large sized liquid filled structure.

 Found in both animal and plant cell but more in number and

large size in plant cell.

 The vacuoles of plant cells are bounded by single, semi-

permiable membrane known as tonoplast.

Function:
1. Storage and transmission of the materials and maintenance of
internal pressure
2. It contains water, phenol, alkloids, pigment salts and other
secretary products
 RIBOSOMES (RIBOZYMES)
 Observed first in plant cell by Robinson and Brown (1953) in bean
roots.
 Small round particles in a cell made up of RNA and protein that are
primarily involved in the assembly of proteins by translating messenger
RNA are called Ribosomes.
 Three kinds of ribosomes: Each ribosome is composed of two
structural units
Mitochondrion – 70s
Chloroplastic – 70s
Cytoplasmic – 80s
s = sedimentation co-efficient, Sved berg units
 Ribosomes remain attached with the membrane of ER by the 60s sub-
units.
 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
 Ribosomes of chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own protein
synthesis
 RIBOSOMES (RIBOZYMES)

Function:
1. To carry out protein synthesis with the help of m-
RNA.
2. In each living cell, the information contained in the
DNA is transferred to mRNA.
3. The mRNA moves from nucleus to cytoplasm and get
attached to the ER.
4. The two ribosome subunits unites around ER and start
protein synthesis.
 MITOCHONDRIA
 Benda (1897) used term Mitochondria. Mito = thread, chondiron = granules,
popularly known as Power House of cell, first observed by Altmann (1894) who
called them bioblast
 A spherical or rod shaped organelle in the cytoplasm of nearly all eukaryotic cells,
containing genetic material and many enzymes important for cell metabolism,
including those responsible for the conversion of food to usable energy is called
mitochondria (Singular-mitochondrion)
 They are cylindrical bodies, rod like structure or spherical granules lying free in
cytoplasm
 Randomly distributed throughout cytoplasm
 They are bounded by two membranes of lipo-proteins
 They arise by fission of pre-existing mitochondria, on an average cell may have
200-800 mitochondria
 Mitochondria are semi-autonomus, self reproducing organelles because they
contain their own genome.
 MITOCHONDRIA

Function:
1. It involved in respiration, oxidation of food (carbohydrates,
amino acids and fatty acids) and metabolism of energy
(powerhouse of cell).
2. They contain circular DNA molecules and ribosomes so they
are capable of synthesis of certain proteins.
3. Since they contain DNA, they contribute to heredity by way of
cytoplasmic inheritance.
4. Mitochondria help the cells to maintain proper concentration of
calcium ions within the various compartments of the cell by
serving as storage tanks of calcium ions.
 PLASTIDS

 Plastids are highly specialized living protoplasmic

bodies of the cytoplasm
 Plastids are major organelles found in plants and algae.
 Plastids often contain pigments used in photosynthesis,
and the types of pigments present can change or
determine the cell's color.
 Plastids are found in the cytoplasm of plant cells only.
 PLASTIDS
 They may be coloured or colourless
1. Leucoplasts – colourless, store starch, oil, protein

2. Chromoplasts – coloured but other than green

viz., plucoxanthin, phycocyanin – Function not
known
3. Chloroplasts – coloured, traping and converting
solar energy
 The plastids are associated with the formation of

starch, chlorophyll and other cytoplasmic products

 Leucoplasts: colourless plastid-absent of pigment. Occurs in plant cell-
not exposed to light such as root and seeds.
Function: Store starch and lipids, Sugar convert into starch.

 Chloroplasts:
They are green in coloured due to chlorophyll, found in plant parts
which are exposed to the light
The contain DNA, Ribosome and complete protein synthetic machinery
Function: Photosynthesis

 Chromoplasts:
They contain pigments of different colour – yellow, orange and red.
Present in petals of flowers and fruits
The colouring matter associated with them are Xanthophyll and
Carotene
 NUCLEUS AND IT’S STRUCTURE
Nucleus:
 The nucleus was first discovered by Robert Brown in 1833, since

nucleus contains chromosomes of genes is called as controlling center

of the cell
 The organelle containing chromosomes and nucleolus and surrounded

by a typical nuclear envelope composed of two concentric membranes

 Usually spherical or oval shape

 Larger in active cell than in resting cells

 Store house of almost all the genetic information

 It consists of four structures:

1. Nuclear membrane
2. Nucleoplasm (karyolimph) or nuclear sap
3. Nuclear reticulum (chromatin)
4. Nucleous
5. Endosomes
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
 Nucleus is enclosed by two membranes of lipo-proteins, which
separated nucleus from cytoplasm and membranes are not
continuous but they are broken at several places is known as
nuclear pores
 Space between two nuclear membrane is known as peri nuclear

space
 Outer membrane is attached with ER on which ribosomes are

present
Function:
1. It facilitates and regulates nucleo-cytoplasmic interaction
2. The nuclear pores regulate the exchange of micro molecules
i.e. protein, r-RNA, m-RNA etc.
2. Nucleoplasm:
The watery substances in higher nucleolus and chromatin are present
which is surrounded by nuclear membrane is called Nucleoplasm or
Nuclear sap or Karyolymph
It is shapeless contains dissolved phosphorus ribose sugar proteins
nucleotides and had nucleic acids
3. Nucleolus:
In higher organisms, every cell nucleus has a spherical, darkly
stained colloidal body, which can be easily seen and generally
disappear during cell division
It is associated with a particular nucleolar organizing chromosome
Chemically, it is composed of large amount of ribosomal proteins
and ribosomal RNA
Functions:
1. Biogenesis of ribosomes
2. Stores all proteins of ribosomes
3. Provide energy for nuclear activities
4. NUCLEAR RETICULUM (CHROMATIN
FIBERS)
 Nucleoplasm contains many thread like, coiled and much
elongated structures
 During cell division – mitosis and meiosis – chromatin fibers

becomes thick ribbon like structure which are known as

chromosomes
Function:
1. Chromatin fibers are the basic unit
2. They are also fundamental basis of inheritance since they
contain the genetic material
3. On the basis of stainability Cohn (1964) classified
chromatin in two parts:
 Heterochromatin
 Euchromatin
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PLANT
CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS
Plant cells Animal cells
1. Cell wall present. Cell wall absent
2. Chloroplasts present. Chloroplasts absent.
3. Plastids occur in cytoplasm. Plastids are absent.
4. Centrioles present only in cells Centrioles are present.
of lower plant forms.
5. Large vacuoles filled with cell Vacuoles, if present are small and
sap. contractile or temporary vesicles.
 PLANT CELL VERSUS ANIMAL CELL
There are several similarities between plant cell and animal cell.
Most of the cell parts are common in both. However, plant cells do
not contain centrioles and animal cells do not contain plastids

SN Particulars Plant cell Animal cell

1. Cell wall Present Absent
2. Plasma membrane Cell wall & cell Cell membrane only
membrane
3. Plastids Present Absent
4. Ribosome Present Present
5. Mitochondria Present Present
6. Golgi apparatus Present Present
7. Endoplasmic reticulum Present Present
 PLANT CELL VERSUS ANIMAL CELL
SN Particulars Plant cell Animal cell
8. Lysosomes Usually absent Present
9. Nucleus Present Present
10. Vacuole Very large Very small
11. Centrioles Lower plants only Present
12. Microtubules Present Present
13. Cytoplasm Present Present
14. Cillia Very rare Present
15. Flagella In some cells only In some cells only
16. Nucleolar organizer Present Present
17. Cell shape Rectangular Round (Irregular)
(Fixed)
THANKS