Chapter 1

Part 2

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 1

Signal Power and Energy
Continuous-time (CT) signal

 The total energy over the time interval in a continuous-time signal

x(t) is defined as:

where |x| denotes the magnitude of the (possibly complex) number x.

The time averaged power is given by:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 2

Signal Power and Energy
Continuous-time (CT) signal

Over an infinite time interval, i.e., for −∞ < 𝑡 < +∞

 Total Energy:

Total averaged power:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 3

Signal Power and Energy
Discrete-time (DT) signal

The total energy in a discrete-time signal over the time interval is defined
as:

The average power over the same interval is given by:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 4

Signal Power and Energy
Discrete-time (DT) signal

Over an infinite time interval, i.e., for −∞ < n < +∞

Total Energy:

Total Averaged power:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 5

Three important cases

Case 1: Signals with finite total energy (. In this case average power is
equal to zero (

In continuous case, if , then

 Example: A signal that takes on the value of 1 for and 0 otherwise

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 6

Three important cases - continued
Case 2: Signals with finite average power (. In this case the signal has
infinte energy (
 Example: consider the constant signal where
The signal has infinite energy, as:

However, the total average power is finite:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 7

Three important cases - continued

Case 3: Signals with neither finite

Example: , in this case both are infinite.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 8

Some Frequently used signals

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 9

Example: Power and Energy

Q: Find for the signal

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 10

Example: Power and Energy

Q: Find for the signal

Solution:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 11

1.2 Transformations of the Independent
Variable

The transformation of a signal is one of the central concepts in the field of signals
and systems.
 Example: in a high-fidelity audio system, an input signal representing music as recorded on
a cassette or compact disc is modified in order to enhance desirable characteristics, to
remove recording noise, or to balance the several components of the signal (e.g., treble
and bass)

We will focus on a very limited but important class of signal transformations that
involves the modifications of the independent variable (i.e., the time axis).
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 12
1.2.1 Examples of Transformations of the
Independent Variable
Time Shift
The original and the shifted signals are identical in shape, but are displaced or
shifted along the time-axis with respect to each other.
Signals could be termed as delayed or advanced in this case.
Example: Signals that are related in this fashion arise in applications such as radar, sonar, and seismic
signal processing, in which several receivers at different locations observe a signal being transmitted
through a medium (water, air, etc.). In this case, the difference in propagation time from the point of
origin of the transmitted signal to any two receivers results in a time shift between the signals at the two
receivers.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 13

1.2.1 Examples of Transformations of the
Independent Variable
Time Shift
 Time shift in discrete time: two signals x[n] and x[n- n0] that are
identical in shape, but that are displaced or shifted relative to each
other.
 Time shift in continuous time: the signal x(t - t0 ) represents a delayed
(if to is positive) or advanced (if to is negative) version of x(t).

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 14

1.2.1 Examples of Transformations of the
Independent Variable
Time Shift

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 15

1.2.1 Examples of Transformations of the
Independent Variable
Time Reversal (Reflection)
The original signal is reflected about the time = 0. For example, if the original
signal is some audio recording, then the time reversed signal would be the
audio recording played backward.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 16

1.2.1 Examples of Transformations of the
Time Scaling :In this case, if the original signal is 𝑥(𝑡), the time variable is
Independent Variable
multiplied with a constant to get a time-scaled signal, e.g., 𝑥(2𝑡), 𝑥(5𝑡),or
𝑥(t/2). If we think of the signal 𝑥(𝑡) as audio recording, then 𝑥(2𝑡) is the
audio recording played at twice the speed and 𝑥(t/2) is the recording played at
half of the speed.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 17

General Case of the Transformation of the
Independent Variable

which for the original signal 𝑥(𝑡) is changed to the form 𝑥(𝛼𝑡+𝛽), where 𝛼
A general case for the transformation of independent variable is the one in

and 𝛽 are given numbers. It has the following effects on the original signal:
 The general shape of the signal is preserved.
 The signal is linearly stretched if 𝛼<1.
 Thesignal is linearly compressed if 𝛼>1.
 The signal is delayed (shifted in time) if 𝛽<0.
 The signal is advanced (shifted in time) if 𝛽>0.
 The signal is reversed in time (reflected) if 𝛼<0.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 18

Example: Time Shift

The signal 𝑥(𝑡+1) can be obtained by shifting the given signal to the left by one
unit.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 19

Example: Time Shift - continued

The signal 𝑥(-𝑡+1) can be obtained using the mathematical definition or figure
of the original signal 𝑥(𝑡). If we use the mathematical definition, then making
the following table could be useful.

You can first plot x(t+), then reflect

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 20

Example: Time Compression

Find
=2/3

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 21

Example: Time Compression - continued

Specifically we note that the value of x(t) at occurs in at

For example, the value of x(t) at is found in at
Also, since x(t) is zero for t< 0, we have =0 for
Similarly, since

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 22

Example : Time Compression (2)
Find Compressed by a factor of 2/3, and shift left by 1

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 23

1.2.2 Periodic Signals

A periodic continuous-time signal has the property that, for all values of t,
there is a positive value T for which:

A periodic signal has the property that it is unchanged by a time shift of T

In this case, we say that is periodic with period T
The Fundamental period is the smallest positive value of T for which the
equation holds

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 24

1.2.2 Periodic Signals - continued

A typical example a sinusoidal signal

For the signal above, the period is :

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 25

1.2.2 Periodic Signals - continued

A discrete-time signal is periodic with period N, where N is a positive

integer, if it is unchanged by a time-shift of N, i.e. if :
, for all values of n
2𝜋

The Fundamental period is the smallest positive value of N for which the
equation holds
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 26
1.2.2 Periodic Signals - Example
Q: Check the periodicity of the following signal:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 27

1.2.2 Periodic Signals - Example
Q: Check the periodicity of the following signal:

We know that and .

Thus, considering t > 0 and t < 0 separately, we see that x(t) does repeat itself over every
interval of length . However, as illustrated in the figure, x(t) also has a discontinuity at the
time origin that does not recur at any other time.
Since every feature in the shape of a periodic signal must recur periodically, we conclude that
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 28
the signal x(t) is not periodic.
1.2.3 Even and Odd Signals
A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if it is identical to its
time-reversed counterpart, i.e., with its reflection about the origin.
Even Continuous-time Signal
Even Discrete-time Signal

A signal x(t) or x[n] is defined as an odd signal if:

Odd Continuous-time Signal
Odd Discrete-time Signal

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 29

1.2.3 Even and Odd Signals

Example:

Even or odd?

Even or odd?

An odd signal must necessarily be 0 at t = 0 or n = 0 , since x(0) should be equal to –x(0) (and x[0]= - x[0])
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 30
Decomposing a Signal into Even and Odd Parts

Any signal can be broken into a sum of two signals: one of which is even, one of which is odd
 For a continuous-time signal :

 For a discrete-time signal

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 31

Decomposing a Signal into Even and Odd Parts -
Example

Even Part Odd Part

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 32

1.3 Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
1.3.1 Continuous-Time Complex Exponential and
Sinusoidal Signals
The Continuous-Time Complex Exponential Signal is of the form:

C and a are in general complex numbers

Depending upon the values of these parameters, the complex exponential

can exhibit several different characteristics.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 33

Real Exponential Signals

In this case both C and a are real numbers.

x(t) is called a real exponential

𝑎𝑡
𝑎𝑡
𝑥 ( 𝑡 )=𝐶 𝑒 ; a> 0 𝑥 ( 𝑡 )=𝐶 𝑒 ; a< 0

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 34

Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals

We consider the case of complex exponenials where a is purely imaginary.

Specifically, consider
An important property of this signal is that it is periodic.
If T is the period of the signal,
This equation can be true:
1. If
2. If

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 35

Periodic Signals

Replacing the value of T with this , and using Euler’s formula, that is,

We get:

Therfore, the signal is a periodic signal

Similarly, the signal has the same fundamental period.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 36

Sinusoidal Signals

A signal closely related to the periodic complex exponential is the

sinusoidal signal: )
With seconds as the units of t, the units of and are radians and radians per second, respectively.
It is also common to write , where has the units of cycles per second, or hertz (Hz).

Continuous-time sinusoidal signal

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 37

 Sinusoidal Signals

𝐴 cos ( 𝜔0 𝑡 + ɸ ) = 𝐴 ¿
Note that the two exponentials in this equation have complex amplitudes

Alternatively, we can express a sinusoid in terms of a complex exponential signal as

The fundamental period of a continuous-time sinusoidal signal or a periodic complex

exponential is inversely proportional to Which we will refer to as the fundamental
frequency.
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 38
Relationship between the fundamental frequency and
period

𝑤1 >𝑤 2> 𝑤3 ⟹ 𝑇 1 <𝑇 2< 𝑇 3

If we decrease the magnitude of , we slow down the rate of oscillation and

therefore increase the period.

Exactly the opposite effects occur if we increase the magnitude of

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 39
Energy & Power of Sinusoid / Complex Exponential
Signals
Consider the periodic exponential signal , and suppose that we calculate the
total energy and average power in this signal over one period
𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑗𝑤0 𝑡 2
𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =∫ |𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡=∫ 1 𝑑𝑡=𝑇 0
0 0
1
𝑃 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =1
𝑇0

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 40

Energy & Power of Sinusoid / Complex Exponential
Signals
Since there are an infinite number of periods as t ranges from , the total energy
integrated over all time is infinite.
However, each period of the signal looks exactly the same. Since the average power of
the signal equals 1 over each period, averaging over multiple periods always yields an
average power of 1.

𝑇
1 | 𝑗𝑤 𝑡|2 1
𝑃 ∞ = lim ∫
𝑇 → ∞ 2𝑇 − 𝑇
𝑒 𝑑𝑡= lim
𝑇 →∞ 2𝑇
0
2 𝑇 =1

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 41

Harmonics of a Periodic Complex Exponential Signal

Periodic complex exponentials will play a central role in much of our treatment of signals
and systems, in part because they serve as extremely useful building blocks for many
other signals.
 We will often find it useful to consider sets of harmonically related complex
exponentials-that is, sets of periodic exponentials, all of which are periodic with a
common period
 Specifically, a necessary condition for a complex exponential to be periodic with
period is that:
Which implies that is a multiple of , i.e.:

Thus if we define must be an integer multiple of

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 42

Harmonics of a Periodic Complex Exponential Signal

A harmonically related set of complex exponentials is a set of periodic exponentials with

fundamental frequencies that are all multiples of a single positive frequency :

This is called the kth-harmonic of the complex exponential signal

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 43

Expressing two complex exponentials into a product of one
complex Exponential and one Sinusoidal

It is sometimes desirable to express the sum of two complex exponentials as the product
of a single complex exponential and a single sinusoid.

For example, suppose we wish to plot the magnitude of the signal

To do this, we first factor out a complex exponential from the right side of the
equation, where the frequency of this exponential factor is taken as the average of
the frequencies of the two exponentials in the sum. Doing this, we obtain:

The magnitude of is:

Full-wave rectified sinusoid

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 44

General complex Exponential Signals

The most general case of a complex exponential can be expressed and

interpreted in terms of the two cases we have examined so far: the real
exponential and the periodic complex exponential.

Both C and a are complex numbers. C is expressed in polar form and a in

rectangular form.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 45

General complex Exponential Signals

𝑎𝑡
| | 𝑟𝑡
| | 𝑟𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 =𝐶 𝑒 = 𝐶 𝑒 cos ( 𝑤 0 𝑡 + 𝜃 ) + j 𝐶 𝑒 sin ( 𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝜃 )
( )

- Case 1: for r=0, the real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential are
sinusoidal
- Case 2: for r>0, they correspond to sinusoidal signals multiplied by a growing
exponential
- Case 3: for r < 0 they correspond to sinusoidal signals multiplied by a decaying
exponential

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 46

General complex Exponential Signals

damped sinusoids

Sinusoidal signals multiplied by decaying exponentials are commonly referred to as damped sinusoids. Examples of
damped sinusoids arise in the response of RLC circuits and in mechanical systems containing both damping and
restoring forces, such as automotive suspension systems.
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 47
1.3.2 Discrete-Time Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals

As in continuous time, an important signal in discrete time is the complex

exponential signal or sequence, defined by:

Where and are, in general, complex numbers. This could alternatively be expressed in the
form:

Real-valued discrete-time exponentials are often used to describe population growth as a

function of generation and total return on investment as a function of day, month, or quarter.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 48

Real Exponential Signals

If and are real numbers, is called a real exponential

𝛼> 1 0 <𝛼<1

−1< 𝛼<0 𝛼< −1

𝑤h𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝛼=1 ? 𝛼=− 1?

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 49
Discrete-Time Sinusoid Signals

Another important complex exponential is obtained by using the form

and by constraining to be purely imaginary (so that ).
Consider:
Therefore, a discrete-time sinusoid signal can be written as:

( )
𝑗 ( 𝜔 0 𝑛 +ɸ ) − 𝑗 ( 𝜔0 𝑛 + ɸ )
𝑒 +𝑒 𝐴 𝑗 ɸ 𝑗𝜔 𝑛 𝐴 − 𝑗 ɸ − 𝑗 𝜔 𝑛
𝐴 cos ( 𝜔0 𝑛+ ɸ ) = 𝐴 = 𝑒 𝑒 0
+ 𝑒 𝑒 0

2 2 2

Using real and imaginary parts, we find:

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 50

Discrete-Time Sinusoid Signals

The signals (1) and (2) are examples of

discrete-time signals with infinite total energy but finite average power.
For example, since , every sample of the signal in eq. (1)
contributes 1 to the signal's energy. Thus, the total energy foris
infinite, while the average power per time point is obviously equal to 1.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 51

Examples of Discrete-Time Sinusoid Signals

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 52

General Complex Exponential Signals

The general discrete-time complex exponential can be written and interpreted in

terms of real exponentials and sinusoidal signals.
Specifically, if we write C and a in polar form:

- For , the real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential sequence are sinusoidal.
- For they correspond to sinusoidal sequences multiplied by a growing exponential
- For , they correspond to sinusoidal sequences multiplied by a decaying exponential
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 53
General Complex Exponential Signals

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 54

1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials
While there are many similarities between continuous-time and discrete-time
signals, there are also a number of important differences.
One of these concerns the discrete-time exponential signal

we identified the following two properties of its continuous-time

counterpart :
1. the larger the magnitude of , the higher is the rate of oscillation in the
signal
2. is periodic for any value of

There are definite differences between each of these properties for discrete-
time signals.
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 55
1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials
To see the difference for the first property, consider the discrete-time
complex exponential:
We see that the exponential at frequency is the same as that at frequency .
Thus, we have a very different situation from the continuous-time case, in
which the signals are all distinct for distinct values of .
 In discrete time, these signals are not distinct, as the signal with frequency
is identical to the signals with frequencies , , and so on. Therefore, in
considering discrete-time complex exponentials, we need only consider a
frequency interval of length in which to choose
On most occasions we will use the interval or the interval

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 56

1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials
 The signal does not have a continually increasing rate of oscillation as
is increased in magnitude.
As we increase from 0, we obtain signals that oscillate more and more
rapidly until we reach .
As we continue to increase , we decrease the rate of oscillation until
we reach , which produces the same constant sequence as.

Therefore, the low-frequency (that is, slowly varying) discrete-time exponentials

have values of near and any other even multiple of , while the high
frequencies (corresponding to rapid variations) are located near and
other odd multiples of .
Note in particular that for or any other odd multiple of
so that this signal oscillates rapidly, changing sign at each point in time.
Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 57
1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 58

1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials
The second property we wish to consider concerns the periodicity of the
discrete-time complex exponential.
In order for the signal to be periodic with period N > 0, we must have:

must be a multiple of . That is, there must be an integer m such that

The signal is periodic only if is a rational number

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 59

1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 60

1.3.3 Periodicity Properties of Discrete-Time Complex
Exponentials
Example: Suppose that we wish to determine the fundamental period of the
discrete-time signal
The first exponential:
The second term:

Now, for the entire signal x[n] to repeat, each of the terms must go through an
integer number of its own fundamental period. The smallest increment of n
that accomplishes this is 24. That is, over an interval of 24 points, the first term
on the right-hand side will have gone through eight of its fundamental periods,
The second term through three of its fundamental periods, and the overall signal
x[n] through exactly one of its fundamental periods.

Signals and Systems - Chapter 1 61