Observational

Research Method
 2 February 9, 2025

Objectives
Upon the completion of this lesson, you will be able to;
Describe the historical background and importance of observational
research method.
Explain the sampling of behavior.
Classify the observational research methods.
Explain the process of behavior recording.
Describe the procedure of analysis for observational data.
Explain the limitation/critique on observational research method.
 3 February 9, 2025

Introduction
 Observational research is a method used to study and gather
information about individuals or groups without manipulating or
altering the conditions in which they are observed.
 The history of observational research can be traced back to the early
days of scientific inquiry, where naturalists and scientists observed
and recorded observations of the natural world.
 One of the earliest examples of observational research can be found
in the work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who is
credited with developing the method of systematic observation and
description. He used observation to study the natural world,
including the behavior of animals, plants, and the weather.
 Another examples of observational research is the work of Galileo
Galilei (1564-1642), who used observational methods to make
groundbreaking discoveries in the fields of physics and astronomy..
 4 February 9, 2025

Introduction
 In the 18th century, naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) used
observational methods to classify and understand the natural world.
 During the 19th century, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) used
observational research methods in his studies of natural selection,
which led to the development of the theory of evolution. Similarly,
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) used observational methods to study
the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which laid the foundation for
the science of genetics.
 In the field of psychology, the use of observational research
methods can be traced back to the early 20th century, with the work
of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Carl Jung (1875-1961) who
used observation and case studies to understand the human mind.
 5 February 9, 2025

Introduction
 Later, developmental psychologists such as Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
and Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) used observation to study children's
cognitive development.
 The use of observational research methods has continued to evolve
and expand in recent years, with the development of new
technologies and techniques such as video recording, physiological
measures, and online data collection. Today, observational research
is used in a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology,
anthropology, biology, and many other fields.
 6 February 9, 2025

Introduction
 We observe behavior every day. Many of us are people watchers.
 People’s behaviors—gestures, expressions, postures, choice of
apparel—contain a lot of information (e.g., Pease & Pease, 2004).
 Many of our expressions are “universal” signals, that is, recognized
in all cultures (Ekman, 1994).
 Our everyday observations and those of scientists differ as;
 Factors that bias our observations
 Formal records of our observations
 Rely on our memory of the events
 Scientific observation is made under precisely defined conditions,
in a systematic/objective manner, and with careful record keeping.
 The primary goal is to describe behavior fully and accurately
through sampling of behavior and consideration of context.
 7 February 9, 2025

Sampling Behavior
 When a complete record of behavior cannot be obtained,
researchers seek to obtain a representative sample of behavior.
 The extent to which observations may be generalized (external
Validity) to different populations, settings, and conditions depends
on how behavior is sampled. Recall that validity concerns
“truthfulness.”
 Only certain behaviors occurring at particular times, in specific
settings, and under particular conditions can be observed. In other
words, behavior must be sampled. This sample is used to represent
the larger population of all possible behaviors.
 For example, observations made of classroom behavior at the
beginning of a school year may be representative of behavior early
in the school year, but may not yield results that are typical of
behavior seen at the end of the school year.
 8 February 9, 2025

Sampling Behavior
 9 February 9, 2025

Sampling Behavior
Time Sampling
Time sampling refers to researchers choosing time intervals for
making observations either systematically or randomly.
When researchers are interested in events that happen infrequently,
they rely on event sampling to sample behavior.
Situation Sampling
Situation sampling involves studying behavior in different locations
and under different circumstances and conditions.
Situation sampling enhances the external validity of findings.
Within situations, subject sampling may be used to observe some
people in the setting.
 10 February 9, 2025

Observational Method
 11 February 9, 2025

Direct Observation
 Researchers often observe behavior while it occurs—that is,
through direct observation which may be classified as;
 Observation without intervention
 Observation with intervention
 When observing behavior directly, researchers make a decision
regarding the extent to which they will intervene in the situation
they observe.
 An intervention refers to researchers’ efforts to change or create the
context for observation.
 The extent of intervention varies on a continuum from none to
intervention that involves carrying out an experiment in a natural
setting.
 12 February 9, 2025

Observation without Intervention

 The goals of naturalistic observation are to describe behavior as it
normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables.
 Naturalistic observation helps to establish the external validity of
laboratory findings. When ethical and moral considerations prevent
experimental control, naturalistic observation is an important
research strategy.
 In this method, an observer acts as a passive recorder of events as
they occur naturally. Although it is not easy to define a natural
setting precisely (Bickman, 1976), we can consider a natural setting
one in which behavior ordinarily occurs and that has not been
arranged specifically for the purpose of observing behavior.
 For example, Matsumoto and Willingham (2006) observed athletes
in the “natural” (for these athletes) setting of an Olympic judo
competition.
 13 February 9, 2025

Observation with Intervention

 Most psychological research uses observation with intervention.
 It’s not a secret. Scientists like to “tamper” with nature. They like to
intervene in order to observe the effects and perhaps to test a
theory.
 Intervention, rather than nonintervention, characterizes most
psychological research. There are three important methods of
observation that researchers use when they choose to intervene in
natural settings:
 Participant observation
 Structured observation
 Field experiment
 The nature and degree of intervention varies across these three
methods.
 14 February 9, 2025

Participant Observation
 In participant observation (disguised), observers play a dual role:
They observe people’s behavior and they participate actively in the
situation they are observing.
 In undisguised participant observation, individuals who are being
observed know that the observer is present for the purpose of
collecting information about their behavior. This method is used
frequently by anthropologists who seek to understand the culture
and behavior of groups by living and working with members of the
group
 Whether “undisguised” or “disguised,” participant observation
allows researchers to observe behaviors and situations that are not
usually open to scientific observation.
 If individuals change their behavior when they know they are being
observed (“reactivity”), their behavior may no longer be
representative of their normal behavior.
 15 February 9, 2025

Structured Observations
 Often used by clinical and developmental psychologists, structured
observations are set up to record behaviors that may be difficult to
observe using naturalistic observation.
 Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is perhaps most notable for his use of
these methods. In many of Piaget’s studies, a child is first given a
problem to solve and then given several variations of the problem to
test the limits of the child’s understanding. These structured
observations have provided a wealth of information regarding
children’s cognition and are the basis for Piaget’s “stage theory” of
intellectual development (Piaget, 1965).
 16 February 9, 2025

Field Experiments
 In a field experiment, researchers manipulate one or more
independent variables in a natural setting to determine the effect on
behavior.
 It is the most extreme form of intervention in observational
methods.
 Researchers exert more control in field experiments when they
manipulate an independent variable.
 Field experiments are frequently used in social psychology. For
example, confederates have been used to cut into a waiting line in
order to study those already in line (Milgram, Liberty, Toledo, &
Wackenhut, 1986). In one field experiment, people’s reactions to
the intrusion were lessened when confederates also waited in line
but did not object to the line cutting.
 17 February 9, 2025

Indirect (Unobtrusive) Observational Method

 However, observations also can be made indirectly, as when
researchers examine evidence of past behavior using physical traces
or archival records. This is indirect (or unobtrusive) observation.
 The researcher does not intervene in the situation
 The participants are nonreactive.
 Obtained by examining;
 Physical traces
 Archival records
 Unobtrusive methods also yield important information that can
confirm or challenge conclusions based on direct observation,
making these methods an important tool in the multimethod
approach to research.
 18 February 9, 2025

Physical Traces
 19 February 9, 2025

Physical Traces
 Physical traces are the remnants, fragments, and products of past
behavior.
 There are two types of physical traces
 Use Traces
 Products
 Use traces reflect the physical evidence of use (or nonuse) of items
and can be measured in terms of natural or controlled use i.e.
remains of cigarettes in ashtrays.
 Classification of Use Trace based on Intervention
 Natural-use traces are observed without any intervention by a
researcher and reflect naturally occurring events.
 Controlled-use traces result from some intervention by a researcher.
 20 February 9, 2025

Physical Traces
 Products are the creations, constructions, or other artifacts of
behavior. By examining products people own or the products
produced by a culture, researchers test hypotheses about attitudes,
preferences, and behavior.
 The validity of physical trace measures is examined by considering
possible sources of bias and by seeking converging evidence.
 By examining the types of vessels/paintings, Anthropologists can
describe patterns of behavior from thousands of years ago.
 Modern-day products (i.e. television shows/fashion) provide insight
into our culture and behavior even vehicle bumper stickers becomes
expression of public emotion and identification with particular
groups and beliefs. Tattoos and body piercings may function in a
similar way in some cultures
 21 February 9, 2025

Archival Records
 Archival records are the public and private documents describing
the activities of individuals, groups, institutions, and governments,
and comprise running records and records of specific, episodic
events i.e. data at social media, NADRA , or university record etc.
 Archival data used to test hypotheses as part of the multimethod
approach, to establish the external validity of laboratory findings,
and to assess the effects of natural treatments.
 Records that are continuously kept and updated are referred to as
running records i.e. academic life while personal documents (e.g.,
birth certificates, marriage licenses), are more likely to describe
specific events or episodes, and are referred to as episodic records
(Webb et al., 1981).
 Potential problems with archival records includes selective deposit,
selective survival, and the possibility of spurious relationships.
 22 February 9, 2025

Archival Records
 Selective deposit occurs when some information is selected to be
deposited in archives, but other information is not. For example,
consider that great archive, the high school yearbook.
 Selective survival arises when records are missing or incomplete
(something an investigator may not even be aware of). Researchers
must consider whether some records “survived,” whereas others did
not.
 Spurious relationship exists when evidence falsely indicates that
two or more variables are associated. False evidence can arise
because of inadequate or improper statistical analyses, or more
often, when variables are accidentally or coincidentally related.
 23 February 9, 2025

Recording Behavior
 The goals of observational research is description of behaviors.
 How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed,
and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially
recorded.
 Additionally, observational methods also differ based on behavior
recording. Sometimes researchers seek a comprehensive description
of behavior and the situation in which it occurs.
 More often, they focus on only certain behaviors or events.
 Whether all behavior in a setting or only selected behaviors are
observed depends on the researchers’ goals.
 The important choice of how behavior is recorded ultimately
determines how the results are measured, summarized, analyzed,
and reported.
 24 February 9, 2025

Comprehensive Records of Behavior

o Narrative records in the form of written descriptions of behavior,
and audio and video recordings, are comprehensive records.
o It provide a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it
originally occurred. For example, videos were used to record the
mother-child interactions among maltreating and non-maltreating
families (Valentino et al., 2006).
o Researchers classify and organize data from narrative records to test
their hypotheses about behavior.
o Narrative records should be made during or soon after behavior is
observed, and observers must be carefully trained to record
behavior according to established criteria.
o As a general rule, records should be made during or as soon as
possible after behavior is observed.
 25 February 9, 2025

Selected Records of Behavior

 When researchers seek to describe specific behaviors or events,
they often obtain quantitative measures of behavior, such as the
frequency or duration of its occurrence.
 Quantitative measures of behavior use one of four levels of
measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
 Rating scales, often used to measure psychological dimensions, are
frequently treated as if they are interval scales even though they
usually represent ordinal measurement.
 Electronic recording devices may be used in natural settings to
record behavior, and pagers sometimes are used to signal
participants to report their behavior (e.g., on a questionnaire).
 26 February 9, 2025

Analysis of Observational Data

 Researchers choose qualitative data analysis or quantitative data
analysis to summarize observational data.
 After recording their observations of behavior, researchers analyze
observational data in order to summarize people’s behavior and to
determine the reliability of their observations.
 The type of data analysis that researchers choose depends on the
data they’ve collected and the goals of their study. For example;
 When researchers record selected behaviors using a measurement
scale, the preferred data analysis is quantitative (i.e., statistical
summaries and analyses).
 When comprehensive narrative records are obtained, researchers
may choose either quantitative or qualitative analyses.
 27 February 9, 2025

Qualitative Data Analysis

 Data reduction is the process of abstracting and summarizing
behavioral data and an important step in the analysis of narrative
records.
 In qualitative data analysis, researchers seek to provide a verbal
summary of their observations and to develop a theory that explains
behavior in the narrative records (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
 Data reduction often involves the process of coding, which is the
identification of units of behavior or particular events according to
specific criteria that are related to the goals of the study.
 Researchers code behaviors according to specific criteria, for
example, by categorizing behaviors.
 28 February 9, 2025

Qualitative Data Analysis

 Content analysis is any objective coding technique that allows
researchers to make inferences based on specific characteristics in
archival records (Holsti, 1969).
 Content analysis is used to examine archival records and includes
three steps:
 Identifying a relevant source
 Sampling sections from the source
 Coding units of analysis.
 29 February 9, 2025

Quantitative Data Analysis

 Data are summarized using descriptive statistics such as frequency
counts, means, and standard deviations.
 Inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which independent
observers agree in their observations.
 Inter-observer reliability is increased by providing clear definitions
about behaviors and events to be recorded, by training observers,
and by providing feedback about the accuracy of observations.
 High inter-observer reliability increases researchers’ confidence
that observations about behavior are accurate (valid).
 Inter-observer reliability is assessed by calculating percentage
agreement or correlations, depending on how the behaviors were
measured and recorded.
 30 February 9, 2025

Critique on Observational Method

Influence of the Observer
The problem of reactivity occurs when the observer influences the
behavior being observed.
Research participants may respond to demand characteristics in the
research situation to guide their behavior.
Methods to control reactivity include concealing the observer’s
presence, adaptation (habituation, desensitization), and indirect
observation (physical traces, archival records).
Researchers must consider ethical issues when attempting to control
reactivity.
 31 February 9, 2025

Critique on Observational Method

Observer Bias
Observer bias occurs when researchers’ biases determine which
behaviors they choose to observe, and when observers’ expectations
about behavior lead to systematic errors in identifying and recording
behavior.
Expectancy effects can occur when observers are aware of
hypotheses for the outcome of a study or the outcome of previous
studies.
Probably the most important factor in dealing with observer bias is
the awareness that it might be present.
Observer bias may be reduced by keeping observers unaware
(“blind”) of the goals and hypotheses of the study.
 32 February 9, 2025

Research Article
Title:
Did You See the Unicycling Clown? Inattentional Blindness while
Walking and Talking on a Cell Phone
Authors:
Ira E. Hyman Jr, S. Matthew Boss, Breanne M. Wise,
Kira E. Mckenzie, and Jenna M. Caggiano
 33 February 9, 2025

Abstract
We investigated the effects of divided attention during
walking. Individuals were classified based on whether they were
walking while talking on a cell phone, listening to an MP3 player,
walking without any electronics or walking in a pair.
In the first study, we found that cell phone users walked more
slowly, changed directions more frequently, and were less likely to
acknowledge other people than individuals in the other conditions.
In the second study, we found that cell phone users were less
likely to notice an unusual activity along their walking route (a
unicycling clown). Cell phone usage may cause inattentional blindness
even during a simple activity that should require few cognitive
resources.
 34 February 9, 2025

References
 Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., &ZechmeisterJ. J. S.
(2009). Research methods in psychology. Singapore: McGraw-
Hill.
 Hyman Jr, I. E., Boss, S. M., Wise, B. M., McKenzie, K. E., &
Caggiano, J. M. (2009). Did you see the unicycling clown?
Inattentional blindness while walking and talking on a cell
phone. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 597-607.
 Matsumoto, D., & Willingham, B. (2006). The thrill of victory and
the agony of defeat: spontaneous expressions of medal winners of
the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Journal of personality and
social psychology, 91(3), 568.
 35 February 9, 2025

THANKS