Semiconductor Devices:

A brief review
 Purpose of the course

• Study bipolar devices in more detail

– Diodes and BJTs
– Closer to reality: recombination
– What causes the delays in these devices when
switching?
The most frequently used sentence in
this course will be:

Excess minority carrier

concentration
 Review

• Electrons and holes

• Minority and majority carriers
• Energy band diagram
 Free charged carriers in Si

Covalent bond
Intrinsic Si Thermal energy: kT Movement: kT
Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Extrinsic Si Extrinsic Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Extrinsic Si B
Si B Si Si Si As Si Si Obtained by doping
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si As

NA ND
p-type n-type
In semiconductors two types of free charged carriers exist: electrons and holes.

Q1: What are holes?

Si Si Si
a) Spherical voids in a semiconductor +
Si Si Si Si
b) A positively charged Si atom that has lost its electron
c) A positively charged particle that is the result of quantum mechanics Si Si

Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si
The two charged particles describe together the conduction in semiconductors.

Electron e- with charge q=-e

and mass mn = m0 m*n

Hole h+ with charge q=+e

and mass mp = m0 m*p
Intrinsic silicon (Si) has a small number of both free electrons and holes such that n i=pi.
In order to increase the free carrier concentration, the semiconductor can be doped. With
donors ND more electrons are created, with acceptors NA more holes are generated.

Q2: When intrinsic Si is doped with donor atoms, which of the following statements is
correct?

a) n = p = n i = pi
b) n > ni & p < n i
c) n > p > ni
d) p > n > ni
n: electron concentration
p: hole concentration
ni: intrinsic electron concentration
pi: intrinsic hole concentration
n > ni & p < ni in an n-type semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor
n = ND
p = ni2/ND

p-type semiconductor
n = ni2/NA
p = NA
The concept of majority carrier and minority carrier
is important in semiconductor devices. Majority
carrier is the carrier type in a doped semiconductor
with the highest concentration. Minority carrier is
the carrier type with the lowest concentration.

Q3: True or False?

The holes are the majority carriers in a p-type
semiconductor (doped with acceptor atoms NA).
TRUE
p-type semiconductor
p > n
p p
p-type p-type
hole semiconductor electron semiconductor
concentration concentration

n-type semiconductor

n > p
n n
n-type n-type
electron semiconductor hole semiconductor
concentration concentration

MAJORITY CARRIERS MINORITY CARRIERS

 Drift and diffusion

• Two types of carrier movement

– As a result of an electric field → DRIFT
– As a result of a carrier gradient → DIFFUSION
Drift of carriers under influence of an
electric field: E

+ E -

+ E -

J q numberof carriersv
J q numberof carriersE
Diffusion of carriers due to a carrier
gradient

J q diffusion constantconcentration gradient

d
J q D  numberof carriers
dx
The purpose of semiconducting devices is to generate a current/voltage in response to an
applied voltage/current. Two different types of current can exist in a semiconductor: drift
and diffusion current. The expression of the total current that can flow in a semiconductor is
given by the drift-diffusion equation:
dn( x)
J n ( x) e n n( x) E ( x)  eDn
dx
dp( x)
J p ( x) e p p ( x) E ( x)  eDp
dx
(1) (2)
Q4: Which statement is true?

a) Term (1) is drift current and (2) diffusion current

b) Term (2) is drift current and (1) diffusion current
c) Only term (1) can exist in a semiconductor
d) Only term (2) can exist in a semiconductor
 A

Drift current is proportional to the carrier concentration

and the electric field
Diffusion current is proportional to the carrier gradient.

E(x)
Jndrift

Jpdrift
n(x)

Jndiff
p(x)
Jpdiff
Motion of free charged carriers in a semiconductor.

Q5: If a p-type semiconductor at room temperature is

conducting carriers due to drift, which of the following
motion paths would be followed by the holes?
+ E - + E -

a) c)

(b) (d)
+ E - + E -
When carriers move in a semiconductor they are
scattered along the way. This means that they will be
accelerated by the electric field (in this case) and then
interact with atoms, impurities, other carriers that makes
them lose some of their kinetic energy = scattering.
Therefore the carriers will travel with an average velocity
in amplitude and direction.
v E
e

m
Q6: Solve diffusion processes

p+ n p

1. Draw arrows indicating the direction of diffusion of carriers.

2. Identify the type of carriers that is diffusing.
 Solution

p+ n p

Holes

Electrons
 p+ n p

Q7: Why is there no net current while diffusion is happening?

1. Because hole diffusion and electron diffusion cancel each other.

2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction
causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
holes/electrons.
3. Because holes and electrons diffuse automatically back to where they
came from.
 - E + + E -

p+ n p

Holes Holes
diffusion drift
Electrons Electrons

2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction

causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
holes/electrons.
 Depletion
NA p-Si ND n-Si
Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Capacitive effect
Capacitive effect

B
- Si As
+ Si Si Si
Si Si B Si Si
- +
B Si Si Si Si As Si Si Si Si As

- - +
E E
+

- +
B : boron atom ionised As : arsenic atom ionised
 Q8: True - False

Ec
EF

Ev

The position of the Fermi level EF determines the type of the

semiconductor.
 Q9: Multiple choice
Ec
EF

Ev

1. This is the energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor.

2. This is the energy band diagram of a p-type semiconductor.
3. This is the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor.
Ec Bottom of conduction band
EF
EG Bandgap. No energy levels in this energy region.
Intrinsic “level”. Is the position of the Fermi level
Ei
EF when the semiconductor is intrinsic.

Ev Top of valence band

Position of Fermi level is determined by the doping type and density
For n-type Si:
  Ec  E F 
n N C exp 
 kT 
 E  E F  N C N C
exp c  
 kT  n ND
N 
Ec  E F kT ln C 
 ND 
 Devices

• A combination of n and p type semiconductors

plus ohmic contacts to apply the external
voltages/currents makes devices
• When combining a-similar materials diffusion
will occur and as a result an internal electric
field will be built up to an amount that opposes
diffusion current.
Evac
Evac

p-Si n-Si
e×fn-Si
e×fp-Si

EF

EF
Evac
Evac

p-Si n-Si
e×fn-Si
e×fp-Si

EF

EF
 Depleted region on both sides
Evac

e V0 e  p  Si  n  Si 
Evac

p-Si e×fp-Si
n-Si
e×fn-Si
Ec

Ec
EF EF
Ev

Ev
 Diffusion and drift can occur at the
A charge packet
same time.
E

Both also always occur across junctions

 A look at the short pn-diode
PN diode
I

p n

p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode

I DIFFUSION

p n

p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION

p n

p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION

Minority carrier concentration

p n How do we find the current?

p n
E
V p n

distance

Linear variation of minority carrier concentration

Apply diffusion current formula to the minority carrier variation
Short PN diode
I

p n

p n

E
p n

Only few carriers can contribute to the current

• Long pn diode
– Introducing the concept of recombination of carriers.
– Switching of the pn diode, where does the delay come from?

• Bipolar junction transistor

– Internal functioning
 But what happens in a long pn diode?

p n

Short

p n

Long

Ln Lp
Minority carrier diffusion length
 In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Excess holes, p in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
Injection of carriers

• Diffusing minority
carriers (e.g. holes)
recombine with majority
carriers (electrons) within
x a diffusion length Lp
Lp
 Generation-recombination
• Generation of carriers and recombination is
continuously happening at the same time
such that the equilibrium carrier
concentrations are maintained.

R=G

Charge neutral
 Recombination - generation
• In case there is an excess carrier
concentration then the recombination rate R
of the excess, will be larger than its
generation rate, G: R>G

When there is a shortage, then G > R

 Recombination - generation
• Simple model: Recombination/generation rate is proportional
to excess carrier concentration.
• Thus no net recombination/generation takes place if the
carrier density equals the thermal equilibrium value.

Recombination of e- in p-type n p  n p0 n p
U n Rn  Gn  
semiconductor n n
pn  pn0 pn
Recombination of h in n-type
+ U p R p  G p  
semiconductor p p
 Diffusion, drift and recombination of
carriers

What is the consequence of this recombination on the

characteristics of the pn diode with neutral regions larger than the
diffusion lengths of the minority carriers?
In the pn diode the carrier gradient
determines the current thus we have to
find the function p(x) of the minority
carrier concentration.
• Note, reasoning done for p(x). For n(x) analogous approach.
Mathematical description of diffusion and
recombination

Jp(x) Jp (x+Dx)
A x
x x+Dx

p 1 J p ( x)  J p ( x  x) p
 
t x  x x q x p

Rate of hole Variation of hole Recombination

variation = concentration in + rate
Dx x A/s
Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
p 1 J p ( x)  J p ( x  x) p
 
t x  x x q x p

p ( x, t )  1 J p p
x  0 :  
t q x  p

p  p0  p = bulk defined + excess concentration

with
p  1 J p p ni2
  p0  pn0 
t q x  p ND

Jp : total current = drift + diffusion

Neglect drift current (no electric field applied)

Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
dp( x)
J p ( x)  eD p
dx

p  1 J p p  2 p p
  D p 2 
t q x  p x p
p  p0  p = bulk defined+ excess concentration
with
p  2p p ni2
D p  p0  pn0 
t x 2
p ND
 Solve equation in steady state
p
0
t dp
 2p p p
  2
x 2
D p p L p Diffusion length Dp
contact
x  X n  p 0
Boundary conditions:
x 0  p p 0 Xn x
 x 

General solution of 2 order differential equation: p( x) C1 sinh
nd  C2 

 Lp 
p  x  Xn 
p( x)  sinh 
  Xn   Lp 
sinh   
 Lp 
 
 Too complicated
• Short approximation • Long approximation

Xn << Lp Xn >> Lp

p  x  Xn 
p( x)  sinh 
  Xn   Lp 
sinh   
 Lp 
 

LINEAR EXPONENTIAL
 Short semiconductor
• Xn ≤ Lp carriers do not have time to recombine (t=∞) !
• Taking linear approximation.

pn(x) dpn(x)

p’n pn(x)= pn0+ Dp (1–x/Xn)

pn(x)

Dp NO recombination : variation
of the excess carrier
pn0 concentration linear

0 Xn x Contact imposes dpn(Xn)=0

 Diffusion and recombination
• Xn >> Lp carriers do have time to recombine (t<∞) !
• Taking exponential approximations

dpn(x)

pn(x)
p   x   X n 
p’n pn(x)=pn0+ 
 exp 



 exp 


 X n    Lp   L p  
1  exp  
 Lp 
Dp  
pn(x)

When recombination occurs

and Xn >> Lp variation of the
pn0 excess carrier concentration is
exponential
0 Lp Xn x
Contact imposes dpn(Xn)=0
 dpn still too complex for quick
calculations

• Take really extreme case

• Xn >>> Lp or Xn → ∞

p   x   X n   x 
dpn(x)= 
 exp    exp   p exp  
 X n    
Lp   L p    Lp 
   
1  exp  
 Lp 
 

Note: I and Q of both expressions of dpn(x) for Xn → ∞ the same

 x 
I for dpn(x)= p exp   same as for linear approximation when Xn=Lp
 Lp 
 
 Diffusion and recombination
• Xn >>> Lp carriers do have time to recombine (t<∞) !
• Taking exponential approximations

pn(x)
p’n pn(x)=pn0+Dp e-x/Lp
When recombination occurs
Dp
pn(x)

and Xn → ∞ variation of the

excess carrier concentration is
pn0 exponential

0 Lp ∞ x Imposes dpn(Xn)=0
 SHORT ↔ LONG
approximation
Lp=200 nm, Xn=20nm Lp=Xn=200nm
dpn(x) dpn(x)
Correct solution
Exponential solution
Linear solution Boundary of short

Short

x x

Lp=200 nm, Xn=400nm Lp=200 nm, Xn=1000nm

dpn(x) dpn(x)

Long
Intermediate

x x
• Calculation of current in pn diode with
neutral regions larger than the diffusion
length, using the long semiconductor
approximation
→
• Exponential variation of the excess minority
carrier concentration.
 Carrier injections: forward bias
e-diff
p n • Carrier injection across
h+diff junction
-wp 0 wn V
n' p n p0 exp


 VT 
np(-x) pn(x) V 
p 'n  pn0 exp 
n’p  VT 
p’n
• Creates minority carrier
np0
pn0 concentration gradients
-x x
np0=ni2/NA & pp=NA
pn0= ni2/ND & nn=ND
 Carrier injections: reverse bias

e-drift • Minority carriers are swept

p n
h drift
+
across junction V<0
-wp 0 wn  V 
n' ' p n p0 exp 

 VT 
np(-x) pn(x)  V 
p ' 'n  pn0 exp 

 VT 
np0 pn0
n’’p
p’’n
-x x
• Small amount of minority
carriers → small current
 Thus
e-diff
p n
h+diff
-wp 0 wn
np(-x) pn(x)
n’p
Dnp p’n
Dpn
np0
pn0
-x x
 ( x)  ( x)
Ln Lp
n p ( x) n p e pn ( x) pn e
Dnp = np0 (eeV/kT -1) Dpn = pn0 (eeV/kT -1)
 Two methods to calculate current
-wp 0 wn
I
x

Slope dpn
dnp
Qn
Dnp Dpn Qp

-x 0 0 x

1. Gradient excess carrier concentration

2. Re-supply of recombined excess charge
1. Excess carrier concentration gradient

Maximum diffusion currents at the edges of the transition region

dnp Slope dpn

h+
e- Dnp Dpn

-x 0 0 x
-wp wn
In = e A Dn ddnp/dx Ip = -e A Dp ddpn/dx
= max @ x=0 = max @ x=0
 1. Excess carrier concentration gradient
Fill in expression for excess carrier concentration

e- h+
 ( x)
 ( x)
  eV     eV   Lp
n p ( x) n p0  exp   1 e
Ln pn ( x)  pn0  exp   1 e
 kT     kT  

 ( x)  ( x)
  eV     eV   Lp
dn p0  exp   1 e
Ln dpn0  exp   1 e
In  
max
diff eADn   kT   Ip  
max
diff  eADp   kT  
dx
dx

x 0 x 0
eAn p0 Dn  eApn0 D p 
 
I n max
diff 
Ln
 eV  
 exp   1  
I p max
diff 
 eV  
 exp   1
  kT   Lp   kT  

In Ip
 Changing gradient!
→
Changing diffusion current density

p n

Itot
Ip In
Itot=In + Ip

In Ip

 ( x)  ( x)
eAn p0 Dn  eApn0 D p 
In  
x
diff 
Ln
 eV  
 exp   1 e
Ln
Ip  
x
diff 
 eV  
 exp   1 e
Lp

  kT   Lp   kT  
Ip   I
x
drift tot  In  
x
diff In   I
x
drift tot  Ip  
x
diff
 2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
-wp 0 wn
I
x

np pn
Ip
dnp = Dnp e-(-x)/Ln
In dpn = Dpn e-(x)/Lp
np0 Qn Dnp Dpn
Qp pn0
-x 0 0 x

Excess carrier charge Q recombines every t seconds (carrier life time).

For steady state Q has to be re-supplied every t seconds → current
2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
Charge – minority carrier life time ratio

dnp dpn
Ip
-(-x)/Ln
dnp = Dnp e
In dpn = Dpn e-(x)/Lp
np0 Qn Dnp Dpn
Qp pn0
-x 0 0 x
-wp 0 wn
Charge = area under excess carrier concentration: integrate
-∞ and + ∞ are the contacts: excess charge = 0!
0 ∞
Qn = -e A ∫-∞ dnp dx Qp = e A ∫0 dpn dx
In = Qn/tn = e A Ln Dnp /tn Ip = Qp/tp = e A Lp Dpn /tp
 Total current
Same equation as short diode with
length exactly equal to the
minority carrier diffusion lengths

• I = Ip(0) + In(0) = e A (Dp pn0 /Lp + Dn np0/Ln )(eeV/kT -1)

• I = I0 (eeV/kT -1)

• With I0 = e A (Dp pn0/Lp + Dn np0/Ln)

Reverse bias current
 Small signal equivalent circuit
• Junction capacitance • Diffusion capacitance
• Due to depletion region • Due to charge storage effects
np
p n p pn n

w -wp 0 wn
• Cj = e A/w • Cd = dQ/dV = d (I t)/dV
• w function of bias = e/kT I t
→ C voltage variable capacitance
• Important in reverse bias • Important in forward bias
 Equivalent conductance
• Diffusion conductance • Series resistance rs

• Due to n and p region +

• gd = dI/dV = e/kT I0 eeV/kT
contact resistance
≈ e/kT I
• Vd = Vappl – rs I
• Slope of the current voltage
characteristic in forward
bias rd
rs
Cj

Cd Only linear circuit elements present

Large signal equivalent circuit

Rs

C Reverse bias: depletion capacitance

Forward bias: diffusion capacitance

Non-linear circuit elements present

 Conclusions

• The characteristics in a pn diode are based

upon excess minority carrier diffusion.
– Excess carrier concentrations are being formed
by injection of carriers across the junction.
– The gradient of the excess minority carrier
concentration at the junction determines the
magnitude of the current.
 Revision
• When recombination is taken into account, the
excess minority carrier concentration reduces while
diffusing through the neutral regions of the diode.
• The variation of the excess carrier concentration is
then given by:

p  2p p
D p 2

t x p
Lifetime of minority
carrier holes
Revision

• The steady state solution for the excess minority

carrier concentration is then:

p  x  Xn 
p( x)  sinh 
  Xn   Lp 
sinh   
 Lp 
 

• This is considered too complex for quick

calculations and approximations are used in the
case of a short or long neutral region.
Revision

• Short: Xn ≤ Lp linear

pn(x) dpn(x)

p’n pn(x)= pn0+ Dp (1–x/Xn)

pn(x)

Dp

pn0

0 Xn x Contact imposes dpn(Xn)=0

Revision

• Long: Xn >>> Lp exponentia

l
p   x   X n 
pn(x)=pn0+ 
 exp    exp  
 X n    
Lp   L p  
1  exp    
pn(x)  Lp 
 
p’n
pn(x)=pn0+Dp e-x/Lp
Dp
pn(x)

pn0

0 Lp ∞ x Imposes dpn(Xn)=0
Revision

• These approximation make some errors in the calculation

of the current and the charge stored in the neutral regions.
• However we will see that:

1. I and Q for simplified and non-simplified exponential variation

of dpn(x) for Xn → ∞ is the same
 x 
2. I for dpn(x) = p exp   is same as for linear approximation
 Lp 
when Xn=Lp