Chapter :Ray optics-I

RAY OPTICS-I
1. Reflection of light and reflection by spherical mirror
2. Refraction of Light
3. Laws of Refraction and Principle of Reversibility of Light
4. Refraction through a Parallel Slab
5. Refraction through a Compound Slab
6. Apparent Depth of a Liquid
7. Total Internal Reflection
8. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces - Sign Conventions
9. Refraction at Convex and Concave Surfaces
10.Lens Maker’s Formula
11.First and Second Principal Focus
14. Thin Lens Equation (Gaussian Form)
15. Linear Magnification
16. Refraction through a Prism
17. Expression for Refractive Index of Prism
18. Dispersion
19. Angular Dispersion and Dispersive Power
20. Blue Colour of the Sky and Red Colour of the Sun
21. Compound Microscope
22. Astronomical Telescope (Normal Adjustment)
23. Astronomical Telescope
24. Newtonian Telescope (Reflecting Type)
 Reflection of light-
Reflection of light-
The phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium
after striking a surface, is called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection:
The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence
 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface
at the point of incidence lie in the same plane
Sign Conventions:-
All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror or the optical
centre of the lens.
The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are
taken as positive and those measured in the direction opposite to the
direction of incident light are taken as negative .
The heights measured upwards with respect to x-axis and normal to
theprincipal axis (x-axis) of the mirror/ lens are taken as positive (Fig.
9.2). The heights measured downwards aretaken as negative.
 Focal length of spherical mirrors

when a parallel beam of light is incident on a concave mirror, The reflected

rays converge at a point F on the principal axis of a concave mirror . The point F
is called the principal focusof concave the mirror
when a parallel beam of light is incident on a convex mirror, The reflected
rays appear to be diverge from a point F on the principal axis of a convex mirror
. The point F is called the principal focus of convex the mirror
Relation between f and R
We can prove that
∠MCP = θ and ∠MFP = 2θ

From fig
tanθ =MD/CD and tan 2θ =MD/FD
For small angle θ, tanθ ≈ θ,tan 2θ ≈ 2θ.
Therefore, above Eq. Gives

MD/FD = 2MD/CD
FD =CD/2

FD = f and CD = R. then gives

f = R/2
Path of light rays
• Mirror Formula For Concave Mirror When Real Image Is Formed:-
– When object is placed on the principal axis beyond the principal focus, a real and
inverted image is formed

We can PT ∆ A′B′F and ∆ MPF are similar.

A’B’/MP = B’F/ FP
A’B’/AB = B’F/PF ……(i) (AB=MP) Also
We can also PT ΔA’B’P and ΔABPare similar
therefore, A’B’/AB = B’P/ BP
– Or.....(ii)
– From (i) and (ii) we get
– B’F/PF = B’P/ BP …(iii)
– => (PB’-PF)/PF = B’P/BP
– => (-v-(-f))/-f =-v/(-u) (by sign convension)
– => (v/f) + (-1) = v/u (Multiple by 1/v)
– => (1/f) – 1/v = 1/u

–
– ie 1/f = 1/u + 1/v
 Magnification(m)

Magnification(m) :
The size of the image relative to the size of the object is called
linear magnification .
Theratio of the height of the image (h′) to the height of the
object (h):
> m =h/h
In triangles A′B′P and ABP, we have,
> B A’/BA= B’P/BP
With the sign convention, this becomes
– h / h = -v /-u
so that
m = h’/h = - v/u
Refraction of Light:
Refraction is the phenomenon of change in the path of light as it travels
from one medium to another (when the ray of light is incident obliquely).
It can also be defined as the phenomenon of change in speed of light
from one medium to another.

Laws of Refraction: i Rarer

I Law: The incident ray, the normal to the
refracting surface at the point of incidence
and the refracted ray all lie in the same N
r
plane. Denser
r
II Law: For a given pair of media and for N μ
light of a given wavelength, the ratio of the
sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of refraction is a constant for i Rarer
given pair of medium and for given colour of
light. (Snell’s Law)
sin i (The constant μ is called refractive index of the medium,
μ=
sin r i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of
refraction.)
 TIPS:
1. μ of optically rarer medium is lower and that of a denser medium is higher.
2. μ of denser medium w.r.t. rarer medium is more than 1 and that of rarer
medium w.r.t. denser medium is less than 1. (μair = μvacuum = 1)
3. In refraction, the velocity and wavelength of light change.
4. In refraction, the frequency and phase of light do not change.
5. aμm = ca / cm and aμm = λa / λm
Principle of Reversibility of Light:
sin i sin r i Rarer
aμb = bμ a =
sin r sin i (a)

aμ b x bμ a = 1 or aμ b = 1 / bμ a Denser
r (b)
If a ray of light, after suffering any number of
reflections and/or refractions has its path N
reversed at any stage, it travels back to the μ
source along the same path in the opposite
direction.
A natural consequence of the principle of reversibility is that the image and object
positions can be interchanged. These positions are called conjugate positions.
Refraction through a Parallel Slab:
N
sin i1 sin i2 i1
aμb = bμ a = Rarer (a)
sin r1 sin r2
But aμb x bμa = 1 N Denser
r1 δ (b)
sin i1 sin i2 t
x =1 i2
sin r1 sin r2 M
y μ
It implies that i1 = r2 and i2 = r1
since i1 ≠ r1 and i2 ≠ r2. r2
Rarer (a)
Lateral Shift:
t sin δ t sin(i1- r1)
y= or y=
cos r1 cos r1

Special Case:
If i1 is very small, then r1 is also very small.
i.e. sin(i 1 – r1) = i1 –
r1 and cos r1 = 1
y = t (i1 – r1) or y = t i1(1 – 1 /aμb)
Refraction through a Compound Slab:
sin i1
aμb = N μa
sin r1 i1
Rarer (a)
sin r1
μc =
b
sin r2 N Denser
r1 (b)
sin r2 r1
cμa =
sin i1 μb

a μb x bμc x cμa = 1 Denser

N
(c) r2
or μb x bμc = aμc r2
a

μc
or b μc = aμc / aμb
Rarer (a)
i1

μc > μb
Apparent Depth of a Liquid: N
sin i sin r
bμ a = or aμb =
sin r sin i
Rarer (a)
hr Real depth μa
aμb = = r
ha Apparent depth

ha r i
hr μb
O’
i
Denser (b)
O
Total Internal Reflection:
Total Internal Reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon of complete reflection of
light back into the same medium for angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle of that medium.
N N N N

Rarer μa
r = 90° (air)

ic i > ic i

Denser μg
O (glass)
Conditions for TIR:
1. The incident ray must be in optically denser medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the
critical angle for the pair of media in contact.
Relation between Critical Angle and Refractive Index:
Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the
angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90°.
sin i sin ic
g μa = = = sin ic
sin r sin 90°

1 1 1
or aμg = μg = or sin ic =
gμ a aμg
a
sin ic

Red colour has maximum value of critical angle and Violet colour has
minimum value of critical angle since,

Applications of T I R:
1. Mirage formation
2. Looming
3. Totally reflecting Prisms
4. Optical Fibres
5. Sparkling of Diamonds
looming

The looming effect is the result of a superior mirage. A typical

example is a mirage of a ship formed over cool water in an area
where the temperature increases with height. Refraction bends
light down toward the water in this case.
Mirage

A mirage is a naturally occurring optical phenomenon in which

light rays bend via refraction to produce a displaced image of
distant objects or the sky.
 optical fiber

Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite

glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and cladding.
The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than
that of the cladding.
no appreciable loss in the intensity of the
light signal.
light reflected at one side of inner surface
strikes the other at an angle larger than the
critical angle.
transmitting and receiving electrical
signals
‘light pipe’---95% transmission
Endoscopy
Prisms designed to bend rays by 90º and 180º or to invert
image without changing its size make use of total internal
reflection.
Spherical Refracting Surfaces:
A spherical refracting surface is a part of a sphere of refracting material.
A refracting surface which is convex towards the rarer medium is called
convex refracting surface.
A refracting surface which is concave towards the rarer medium is
called concave refracting surface.

Rarer Medium Denser Medium Rarer Medium Denser Medium

A
P
• • B B • •P A
C C
R R

APCB – Principal Axis

C – Centre of Curvature
P – Pole
R – Radius of Curvature
Assumptions:
1. Object is the point object lying on the principal axis.
2. The incident and the refracted rays make small angles with the principal
axis.
3. The aperture (diameter of the curved surface) is small.

New Cartesian Sign Conventions:

1. The incident ray is taken from left to right.
2. All the distances are measured from the pole of the refracting surface.
3. The distances measured along the direction of the incident ray are
taken positive and against the incident ray are taken negative.
4. The vertical distances measured from principal axis in the upward
direction are taken positive and in the downward direction are taken
negative.
 Refraction at Convex Surface:
(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Real Image)
N
MA MA
tan α = or α = A
MO i
MO
MA MA r
tan β = or β = α γ β
MI MI • P
• •C •
O M R I
MA MA
tan γ = or γ = u v
MC MC μ1 μ2
Rarer Medium Denser Medium
i=α+γ
γ=r+β or r=γ-β

According to Snell’s law,

sin i μ2 i μ2
= or = or μ1 i = μ2 r
sin r μ1 r μ1
Substituting for i, r, α, β and γ, replacing M by P and rearranging,
μ1 μ2 μ2 - μ1 Applying sign conventions with values,
+ = PO = - u, PI = + v and PC = + R
PO PI PC
μ1 μ2 μ2 - μ1
+ =
-u v R
Refraction at Convex Surface:
(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Virtual
N
Image)
A
i r
μ1 μ2 μ2 - μ1 β α γ
+ = • • • •
-u v R I O uP M R C
v
μ1 μ2
Rarer Medium Denser Medium
Refraction at Concave Surface:
(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Virtual N
Image) r
A

i
μ1 μ2 μ2 - μ1 α γ
• • β• R
•
M P
+ = O I C
-u v R u
μ1 v μ2
Rarer Medium Denser Medium
Refraction at Convex Surface:
(From Denser Medium to Rarer Medium -
N
Real Image)
A
r

μ2 μ1 μ1 - μ2 i
α γ β
+ = • C
• •
M P
•
-u v R O R I
u v
Denser Medium μ2 Rarer Medium μ1
Refraction at Convex Surface:
(From Denser Medium to Rarer Medium - Virtual
Image)
μ2 μ1 μ1 - μ2
+ =
-u v R

Refraction at Concave Surface:

(From Denser Medium to Rarer Medium -
Virtual Image)
μ2 μ1 μ1 - μ2
+ =
-u v R
Note:
1. Expression for ‘object in rarer medium’ is same for whether it is real or
virtual image or convex or concave surface.
μ1 μ2 μ2 - μ1
+ =
-u v R

2. Expression for ‘object in denser medium’ is same for whether it is real or

virtual image or convex or concave surface.

μ2 μ1 μ1 - μ2
+ =
-u v R

3. However the values of u, v, R, etc. must be taken with proper sign

conventions while solving the numerical problems.

4. The refractive indices μ1 and μ2 get interchanged in the expressions.

Lens Maker’s Formula:
For refraction at
L
LP1N,
μ1 μ1
μ1 μ2 μ2 - μ1 N1 N2
+ = A
CO CI1 CC1 i
(as if the image is
formed in the denser • • P1
• C •P • • •
medium) O C2 2 I C1 I1

For refraction at R2 R1
μ2
LP2N,
μ2 μ1 -(μ1 - μ2) u v
+ =
-CI1 CI CC2 N
(as if the object is in the denser medium and the image is formed in the rarer
medium)
Combining the refractions at both the surfaces, Substituting the values
μ1 μ1 with sign conventions,
1 1
+ = (μ2 - μ1)( + )
CO CI CC1 CC2 1 1 (μ - μ ) 1 1
+ = 2 1 ( - )
-u v μ 1 R1 R2
 Since μ2 / μ1 = μ

1 1 μ2 1 1
+ =( - 1) ( - )
-u v μ1 R1 R2

or
1 1 1 1
+ = (μ 21 – 1)( - )
-u v R1 R2

When the object is kept at infinity, the image is formed at the principal focus.
i.e. u = - ∞, v = + f.
1 1 1
So, = (μ21 – 1)( - )
f R1 R2

This equation is called ‘Lens Maker’s Formula’.

1 1 1
Also, from the above equations we get, + =
-u v f
First Principal Focus:
First Principal Focus is the point on the principal axis of the lens at which if
an object is placed, the image would be formed at infinity.

F1
F1

f1 f1

Second Principal Focus:

Second Principal Focus is the point on the principal axis of the lens at
which the image is formed when the object is kept at infinity.

F2
F2

f2 f2
Thin Lens Formula (Gaussian Form of Lens Equation):
For Convex Lens:
A
M

2F1 F1 F2 2F2 B’
• • •
C
• •
B

u v
R f
Triangles ABC and A’B’C are similar. CB’ B’F2
=
CB CF2 A’
A’B’ CB’
=
AB CB CB’ CB’ - CF2
=
Triangles MCF2 and A’B’F2 are similar. CB CF2
According to new Cartesian sign
A’B’ B’F2 conventions,
=
MC CF2 CB = - u, CB’ = + v and CF2 = + f.
A’B’ B’F2
or = v/(-u)=(v-f)/f 1 1 1
AB CF2 -1/u=1/f -1/v - =
v u f
Linear Magnification:
Linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of
the image to the size of the object.
hi
m =
hO Magnification in terms of v and f:
A’B’ CB’
= f-v
AB CB m =
f
According to new Cartesian sign
conventions,
Magnification in terms of u and f:
A’B’ = + I, AB = - O, CB’ = + v and
CB = - u.
f
m =
+I +v I v f-u
= or m= =
-O -u O u

Power of a Lens:
Power of a lens is its ability to bend a ray of light falling on it and is reciprocal
of its focal length. When f is in metre, power is measured in Dioptre (D).
1
P =
f
 Power of a lens:-
Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence of lens,

The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it

converges or diverges a beam of light falling at unit distant from the optical
centre

tanδ =h/f; if h=1 then tanδ=1/f

P =1/f

The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D):

1D = 1m–1.

Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a

diverging lens.
 Combination of thin lenses

PO = u, object distance for the first lens (A),

PI = v, final image distance and
PI1​=v1​, image distance for the first lens (A) and also object
distance for second lens (B).
For the image I1​produced by the first lens A,
1/v​1​−1/u =1/f1​​ .... (1)
For the final image I, produced by the second lens B,
1/v−1/v​1​=1/f2​​ ... (2)
Adding equations (1) and (2),
1/v​−1/u​=1/f1​​+1/f2​​ ... (3)
If the combination is replaced by a single lens of focal length F
such that it forms the image of O at the same position I, then
1/v​−1/u​=1/f​... (4)
From equations (3) and (4),
1/f​=1/f1​​+1/f2​​...... (5 ) P=P1+P2
This F is the focal length of the equivalent lens for the
combination.
Refraction of Light through Prism:
A
A

N1 N2
P D δ
i e
Q
r1 O r2
μ
B C Prism

In triangle DPQ, Refracting Surfaces

In quadrilateral APOQ,
δ = (i - r1) + (e - r2)
A + O = 180° …….(1) δ = (i + e) – (r1 + r2) …….(3)
(since N1 and N2 are normal) From (3),
In triangle OPQ, δ = (i + e) – (A)

r1 + r2 + O = 180° …….(2) or i+e=A+δ

From (1) and (2),
A = r 1 + r2
Sum of angle of incidence and angle
of emergence is equal to the sum of
angle of prism and angle of deviation.
Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence:

When angle of incidence increases,

the angle of deviation decreases.
At a particular value of angle of incidence
the angle of deviation becomes minimum
and is called ‘angle of minimum deviation’.
At δm, i=e and r1 = r2 = r (say)
After minimum deviation, angle of deviation
increases with angle of incidence.
Refractive Index of Material of Prism:
A = r1 + r2 According to Snell’s law,
A = 2r sin i sin i
μ= =
r=A/2 sin r1 sin r

i+e=A+δ (A + δm)
sin
2 i = A + δm 2
μ=
A
i = (A + δm) / 2 sin
2
Refraction by a Small-angled Prism for Small angle of Incidence:
sin i sin e
μ= and μ=
sin r1 sin r2

If i is assumed to be small, then r1, r2 and e will also be very small.

So, replacing sines of the angles by angles themselves, we get

i e
μ= and μ =
r1 r2

i + e = μ (r1 + r2) = μ A
But i + e = A + δ
So, A + δ = μ A

or δ = A (μ – 1)
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
A simple magnifier or microscope:-

The linear magnification m, for the image

formed at the near point D,

m = v/u
=v x1/u
=v(1/v -1/f )
=1-v/f
=1- (-D)/f
= 1+D/f
 Compound Microscope:
uo vo

B A’’’ fe
Fo 2Fo 2Fe α A’
• • Po
• • • •
2Fo A Fo A’’ Fe β Pe
Eye
fo fo

Objective
B’

L Eyepiece

B’’ D

Objective: The converging lens nearer to the object.

Eyepiece: The converging lens through which the final image is seen.
Both are of short focal length. Focal length of eyepiece is slightly greater
than that of the objective.
Angular Magnification or Magnifying Power (M):
Angular magnification or magnifying power of a compound microscope is
defined as the ratio of the angle β subtended by the final image at the eye to
the angle α subtended by the object seen directly, when both are placed at
the least distance of distinct vision.
β M = M e x Mo
M=
α
ve D (ve = - D
Since angles are small, Me = 1 - or Me = 1 +
fe fe = - 25 cm)
α = tan α and β = tan β
tan β vo vo D
M= and Mo = M= (1+ )
tan α - uo - uo fe
A’’B’’ D
M= x Since the object is placed very close to the
D A’’A’’’ principal focus of the objective and the
A’’B’’ D image is formed very close to the eyepiece,
M= x uo ≈ fo and vo ≈ L
D AB -L D
A’’B’’ M= (1+ )
M= fo fe
AB
A’’B’’ A’B’ -L D (Normal adjustment
M= x or M≈ x
A’B’ AB fo fe i.e. image at infinity)
Astronomical Telescope: (Image formed at infinity –
Normal Adjustment)
fo + f e = L

fo fe Eye

Fo
Fe
α
Po α •
β Pe

Eyepiece

Image at
Objective
infinity

Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece.
Aperture of the objective is also large to allow more light to pass through it.
Telescope:-Angular magnification or Magnifying power of a
telescope in normal adjustment is the ratio of the angle subtended by the
image at the eye as seen through the telescope to the angle subtended by
the object as seen directly, when both the object and the image are at infinity.
β
M=
α

Since angles are small, α = tan α and β = tan β

tan β
M=
tan α
Fe I Fe I
M= /
PeFe Po F e

-I -I
M= /
- fe fo

- fo (fo + fe = L is called the length of the

M=
fe telescope in normal adjustment).
Astronomical Telescope: (Image formed at LDDV)

fo
Eye
fe

α A F F
α •e •o
Po β Pe

I
Eyepiece
ue

Objective B D
Angular magnification or magnifying power of a telescope in this case is
defined as the ratio of the angle β subtended at the eye by the final image
formed at the least distance of distinct vision to the angle α subtended at
the eye by the object lying at infinity when seen directly.

β 1 1 1
M= - =
α -D - ue fe

Since angles are small, 1 1 1

or = +
α = tan α and β = tan β ue fe D
tan β Multiplying by fo on both sides and
M=
tan α rearranging, we get
Fo I Fo I
M= / - fo fe
PeFo Po F o M= (1+ )
fe D
PoF o + fo
M= or M = Clearly focal length of objective must be
PeFo - ue
greater than that of the eyepiece for larger
magnifying power.
Lens Equation
Also, it is to be noted that in this case M is
1 1 1 larger than that in normal adjustment
- = becomes
v u f position.
Newtonian Telescope: (Reflecting Type)

Plane Mirror
Light
from star

Magnifying Power: Eyepiece

fo
M=
fe Concave Mirror

Eye