13--44 FAST ETHERNET

Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN

protocols such as Fiber Distributed Data Interface or
Fiber Channel. IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the
name 802.3u. Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible
with Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10
times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.

13.1
 Figure 13.20 Fast Ethernet implementations

13.2
 Figure 13.21 Encoding for Fast Ethernet implementation

13.3
 Table 13.2 Summary of Fast Ethernet implementations

13.4
 13--55 GIGABIT ETHERNET

The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the

design of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol (1000 Mbps).
The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.
Note

In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit

Ethernet, there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal
attenuation in the cable.
13.5
 Figure 13.23 Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.6
 Figure 13.24 Encoding in Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.7
 Table 13.3 Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.8
 Table 13.4 Summary of Ten-Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.9
 Connecting LANs,
Backbone Networks,
and Virtual LANs
 Figure 15.1 Five categories of connecting devices

15.11
 Figure 15.2 A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN

15.12
 Note

• A repeater connects segments of a LAN.

• A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering
capability.
• A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.

15.13
 Figure 15.3 Function of a repeater

15.14
 Figure 15.4 A hierarchy of hubs

15.15
 Note

A bridge has a table used in

filtering decisions.

15.16
 Figure 15.5 A bridge connecting two LANs

15.17
 Note

A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses

in a frame.

15.18
 Figure 15.6 A learning bridge and the process of learning

15.19
 Figure 15.11 Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs

Routes packets based on their logical addresses.

15.20
15-2 BACKBONE NETWORKS

A backbone network allows several LANs to be

connected. In a backbone network, no station is directly
connected to the backbone; the stations are part of a
LAN, and the backbone connects the LANs.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bus Backbone
Star Backbone
Connecting Remote LANs

15.21
 Figure 15.12 Bus and star backbone

15.22
 Figure 15.15 A switch connecting three LANs

15.23
 Figure 15.16 A switch using VLAN software

15.24
 Figure 15.17 Two switches in a backbone using VLAN software

15.25
 Network Layer:
Logical Addressing

19.26
 19-1 IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and

universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.
The address space of IPv4 is 232 or 4,294,967,296.

Topics discussed in this section:

Notations
Classful Addressing
Classless Addressing
Network Address Translation (NAT)

19.27
 Figure 19.1 Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address

There are two prevalant notations to show an IPv4 adress:

Binary notation and

Dotted decimel notation

19.28
 Example 19.1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation

to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation.

19.29
 Example 19.2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent
(see Appendix B).

19.30
 Example 19.3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
19.31
 Note

In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five

classes:
A, B, C, D, and E.

19.32
 Figure 19.2 Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

19.33
 Example 19.4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
19.34
 Table 19.1 Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

19.35
 Example 19.5

Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary and

dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business that
needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block. The
addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses is a
power of 2 (16 = 24).

19.36
 Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

19.37
 Note
In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n defines
the mask.

• A subnet mask or mask is a number that defines a range of IP

addresses available within a network.

• The first address in the block can be found by setting the

rightmost 32 − n bits to 0s.

• The last address in the block can be found by setting the

rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.
19.38
 Example 19.6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We

know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is
the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.
19.39
 Example 19.7

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

19.40
 Note
The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the formula
232−n.

19.41
 Example 19.8

Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

19.42
 Figure 19.4 A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

19.43
 Note
The first address in a block is normally not assigned to any device;
it is used as the network address that represents the organization
to the rest of the world.

19.44
 Figure 19.6 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

• Each address in the block can be considered as a two-level hierarchical

structure:

• The leftmost n bits (prefix) define the network;

• The rightmost 32 − n bits define the host.

19.45
 Three level of hierarchy: Subnetting

• Organization : granted a large block of addresses to create clusters of

Networks (called subnets)
• Divide the addresses between the different subnets
• Organization is one entity for the rest of the world
• Organization needs to create small subblocks of addresses, each assigned
to specific subnets
• The organization has its own mask; each subnet must also have its own.
• For example, an organization is given the block 17.12.40.0/26, which
contain 64 addresses.
• Organization has three offices and needs to divide the addresses into three
subblocks of 32, 16,16 addresses.

19.46
 Figure 19.7 Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network

19.47
 Figure 19.8 Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.48
 Example 19.10

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with

190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses are
still available after these allocations.
19.49
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Solution
Figure 19.9 shows the situation.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses are

19.50
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses are

19.51
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
19.52
 Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

19.53
 Network Address Translation (NAT)

Table 19.3 Addresses for private networks

NAT enables a user to have a large set of addresses internally and one
Address or small set of addresses externaly.

19.54
 Figure 19.10 A NAT implementation

19.55
 Figure 19.11 Addresses in a NAT

19.56
 Figure 19.12 NAT address translation

19.57
 Table 19.4 Five-column translation table

19.58
19.59
19.60
19.61
19.62
• Switching at the network layer in the Internet uses the
datagram approach to packet switching.

• Communication at the network layer in the Internet is

connectionless.

19.
63