Dambi Dollo University

Department of Biology
Evolution
By Itefa Degefa(Assist.
Prof)
 Upon completion of the module the
students will be able to:
 Explain how the idea of evolution evolved over
time.
 Discuss how life could have originated on earth.
 Explain evidence of evolution.
 Discuss importance of genetic variation for
evolution.
 Comment on the mechanism (theories) of
evolution.
 Discuss major modes of new species formation.
 Describe when and where humans and other
hominids evolved.
 Introduction
Evolution:
• described as series of changes across successive
generations in the heritable characteristics of biological
populations.

• Processes in evolution give rise to diversity at every level of

biological organization, which include species, individual
organisms and at the molecular level, such as proteins and
DNA.

• Evolution is a scientific theory based upon evidence

provided by all fields of biological science.

What is science? Theory?

Hypothesis?
Science:
• knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general
truths or the operation of general laws especially as
obtained and tested through scientific method.
• Science and all of our technological advances are based
up on hypotheses
Hypothesis:
• An educated guess based on evidence concerning how
or why a phenomenon occurs.
• That are developed, repeatedly tested, and refined (or
refuted) through the scientific method.
Scientific method: The process of scientific
inquiry for
 Investigating phenomena
 Acquiring new knowledge
 Correcting integrating previous
knowledge.
 To be called scientific, a method must be based
on observable, measurable evidence collected
by observation or experimentation
Evidence: Information accumulated through
• Scientific evidence usually goes toward supporting or
rejecting a hypothesis collected through observation or
experimentation.
Facts: An objective and verifiable observation; in
contrast with a hypothesis or theory, which are
intended to explain or interpret facts (observations or
data), which can be experimentally tested.
Theory: A hypothesis that has be come widely accepted
after rigorous testing.
• A scientific theory is the synthesis of a large number of
accepted hypotheses.
• Evolution is a scientific theory based upon evidence
The word evolution means
Change.
 The biological model for the history of life on
Earth.
Refers to descent with modification (Charles
Darwin, 1859).
Inheritable change within a lineage or the change
that occurs between generations within one
population of a species (Dodson, 1976).

This refers of course to change expressed from on
• Evolution of life means the gradual formation of complex
organisms from simpler ones.
• Evolution is the process whereby modern forms of life have
been derived from earlier, simpler forms of life through the
operation of natural laws.
• Evolution is the biological process in which inherited traits
become more or less common in a population over
successive generations.
• Over time, this process can lead to speciation, the
development of new species from existing ones.

• All extant organisms are related by common descent, having

evolved over billions of years of cumulative genetic changes
• Small modifications occur at the genetic level (in DNA)
with each generation, and these genetic changes can
affect how the creature interacts with its environment.
• Over time, accumulation of these genetic changes can
alter the characteristics of the whole population, and a
new species appears.
• Major changes in life forms take place by the same
mechanism but over even longer periods of time.
• All life today can be traced back to a common ancestor
some 3.85 billion years ago.
Inherited:
– Derived from a preformed genetic code present in
an ancestor. Change within a lineage
Lineage:
– Line of descent from an ancestor.
– In other words, evolution occurs when inherited
changes from generation
Generation:
–
A single step or stage in the succession of natural desc
ent.

According to Universal Common Descent

• all living things—including humans—are related to one
another through common descent from the earliest form
of life, which first appeared on earth about 3.85 billion
• Common descent is supported by
multiple independent lines of evidence
most notably the fossil record and
the comparison of many species’ genomes.
•Evolution as a process of gradual development of
organisms
through time includes the following characteristics:
– Differential survival
– Mechanism of inheritance
– Sexual reproduction
– Sexuality and interbreeding through isolation
mechanism
– Environmental adaptation
Why we study Evolution?
•The theory of evolution is quite rightly called the greatest
unifying
theory in biology.
•The diversity of organisms (similarities and differences) b/n
various kinds of organisms, patterns of distribution and
behavior,
adaptation and interaction, all this was facts until given
meaning by
the evolutionary theory.
•There is no area of biology in which that theory does not serve
as
an ordering principle.
• Theodosius Dobzhansky (1973) said: “Nothing in biology
makes
sense except in the light of evolution”.
•For more than a century, the theory of evolution has
exerted a very
strong influence on our thinking about biology, also on

developments in other disciplines such as sociology,

politics,
economics and religion.
•So, we study evolution
• for knowledge,
• Evolution was happening
 150 million years ago when dinosaurs dominated the
Earth
 in the 1830s when Charles Darwin landed on the
Galapagos Islands
 It is occurring in every living species on the planet,
right now.
• Evolution is not just only about fossils but also about
 Molecules
Genes
Mutations
 Populations and
Sex in living organisms.
• All of these things are primary sources of data about
evolutionary processes that occur when organisms try
 CHAP.2.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTION

 Evolutionary ideas before Darwin

Lamarck: French, 1744 -1829 proposed the theory of

transformation.

• The theory suggesting that traits of an organism are

produced and inherited by direct influence of the
physical environment by use or disuse of body parts
• traits acquired during an individual’s lifetime could be
inherited by its offspring. E.g. giraffes' neck
• This scientific theory was largely ignored or attacked
during his lifetime
Lamarck's Scientific Thought was:

• Time and favorable conditions are the two principal means which
nature has working in giving existence to all her productions.

• When one organism use organ, it develops it but when disuse

causes to minimize the function.

• Then these acquired characteristics are passed to the next

generation.

Georges Cuvier : French, 1769 - 1832 was a paleontologist.

• developed the method of reconstructing an animal from

fossilized bone fragments.

• first to claim that fossils are real (not actions put there by God to
test man’s belief) and thus to acknowledge that extinction had
occurred.
Charles Lyell: Scottish, 1797 - 1875 was a geologist and
friend of Charles Darwin.

• In 1830 - 1833, he concluded that the world is old and

that rain, sea, volcanoes, and earthquakes can be used
to explain the geological history of Earth.

Alferd Russel Wallace

• English, 1823 - 1913, an entomologist, can rightfully be

called the "co-discoverer" of the theory of natural
selection

• A letter from Wallace to Darwin in 1858, asking Darwin's

Wallace summarized his theory of natural selection
as:
• Any variation in an organism that favored survival in a
particular environment would increase the organism’s
changes of reproduction and leaving fertile offspring.
• Differences between organisms from the same species
are called variations.
• Organisms are competing for resource like territory,
food, water and mates.
• any variation in organisms that favored survival in a
particular environment would increase the organism’s
chances of reproduction and leaving fertile offspring.
Darwin’s Theory፡
• English, 1809 - 1882 was the best and described as a
gentleman scholar.
• He is the first of the evolutionary biologists, the
originator of the concept of natural selection
• His idea was “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859)

• Natural selection is the means by which beneficial

variations in a population tend to be preserved while
unfavorable variations tend to be lost.
• E.g. "peppered" moths living near English industrial cities.
These insects have varieties that vary in wing and body
coloration from light to dark.
• During the 19th century, dirty smoke from coal burning
furnace (heater) killed the lichen on trees and darkened
the bark.
• When moths landed on these trees and other blackened
surfaces, the dark colored ones were harder to spot by
birds who ate them and, subsequently, they more often
lived long enough to reproduce.
• Over generations, the environment continued to
support darker moths.
• As a result, they progressively became more common.
• By 1895, 98% of the moths in the area of English cities like
Manchester were mostly black.
• Since the 1950's, air pollution controls have significantly
reduced the amount of heavy particulate air pollutants reaching
the trees, buildings, and other objects in the environment.
• As a result, lichen has grown back, making trees lighter in
color.
• In addition, once blackened buildings were cleaned making
them lighter in color.
• Now, natural selection favors lighter moth varieties so they
have become the most common.
• In Darwin's time mutations were not known about in its
essential parts, therefore, Darwin's theory of development has
 Assignment (10%)
1. Write and discuss things that can cause
variation in a given population
2. Why not idea of mutation was not known
before the Darwinian theory of evolution?
3. What advanced idea was raised after
Darwinian theory of evolution do you think?
4. Do you think there is evolution know? How?
But, Currently we accept the general idea that biological
development can be explained by mutations in
combination with natural selection.

Activity: What the difference

between natural
selection and artificial
selection?
The Modern Synthesis (Neo-Darwinism)
• The great pioneer of that field was Gregor Mendel,
whose work was contemporary with Darwin's.
• Now the theory of evolution incorporates Mendel's
genetics into Darwin's framework; the combined theory
was called "neo-Darwinism."
According to Neo-Darwinism,
– Evolution is driven by chance due to mutations.
– Few changes due to mutations affect one or a few
nucleotides of DNA per occurrence.
– Bigger changes come from recombination, a genetic
process in which longer strands of DNA are exchange,
• mutation and recombination, create new meaning in
DNA then after create evolution.
E.g. Consider the ability of bacteria to become resistant to
antibiotics.

• The resistant bacteria descended from preexisting

strains.
• The genes for the resistance were already
available in the gene pool (Salvador Luria and Max
Delbrüc, 1943).
• Although some have doubtful this interpretation of
their experiments, it is now well established.
• And today we know that bacteria often acquire
 Genes may mutate slightly without losing their original functions.
Such mutations could not drive the evolutionary progress
 Genes may mutate slightly and acquire different but closely
related functions.
 Gene may mutate slightly and acquires a wholly new function.
These finally seem to be examples in which mutations create new
meaning.
• The theory after Darwin is known as ``neo-Darwinism'' or ``the
modern synthesis,'' was founded by three men:
1. Ronald Fisher,
2. Sewall Wright, and
3. J. B. S. Haldane.
J.B.S.Haldane (1920)
• was the English greatest geneticist worked in
dependently with A.I. Oparin.
• they argued that the basic organic building blocks of
life could have formed from simpler molecules in the
primitive atmosphere of the earth; an atmosphere
without molecular oxygen, when energized by
lightening or similar kinds of energy.
• According to this idea, the complex organic molecules
created in atmosphere would then rain in to the
primitive ocean, formed an organic soup.
• The two scientists reasoned that as molecules came
together in this soup, natural selection would favor any
groups of molecules that could devour other molecules
for chemical energy, growth and reproduction.
• Thus, they suggested that life begun as simple
heterotrophy-cells that ate outside organic compounds.
• Only when organic soup was depleted, complex organic
molecules would some primitive life forms stumble by
mutation up on autotrophy and begin using captured
physical energy, instead of chemical energy to create
organic molecules
Sewall Wright:
• one of the founders of evolutionary genetics, who
related his strong interest in animal breeding to the
principles of quantitative genetics.
• His paper on the relation of live-stock breeding to
theories of evolution is good summary of his thoughts
and is well worth reading.
R.A. Fisher
• Fisher quantified the role of natural selection in altering the
genetic composition of populations during adaptive evolution
• developed theories explaining the evolution of basic genetic
phenomena like dominance and heterosis
• explained why quantitative variation was more likely to
contribute to evolutionary change, as compared to variation
caused by mutations of major effects.
• He was able to consider the effects on traits of various other
modifying factors like dominance, linkage and non-random
mating.
• Moreover, he developed techniques for partitioning the
observed variation into components due to environmental
effects and effects traceable to different types of genetic
phenomena such as additively, dominance, and epistasis.

Motoo Kimura(1960)
• Kimura did a great deal of important theoretical and
experimental work in the 1970s and 1980s.
• He is the most remembered for his tireless and
dogmatic championing of the neutral theory.
• The neutral theory of molecular evolution (simply
neutral theory of evolution) is an influential theory that
was introduced with stimulating effect by Motoo Kimura
• According to Kimura, when one compares the genomes of
existing species, or looks between a species and its descent,
the vast majority of single-nucleotide differences are
selectively "neutral."
• These differences do not influence the fitness of either the
species or the individuals who make up the species.
• Many molecular biologists and population geneticists,
besides Kimura, contributed to the development of the
neutral theory, which may be viewed as an outcome of the
modern synthesis
• Motoo Kimura achieved international recognition for his
numerous contributions to the fields of evolution and
• Kimura focused on the molecular changes that occur
in the nucleotides of DNA, and concluded that the
resulting mutant genes are neutral and subject to
random drift, or changes, in gene frequencies due to
pure chance.
 Quiz(5%)
1. Write examples human activities through artificial
selection on the formation of evolution
2. What was the idea of Charles Darwin on
evolvement of organism?
3. Do you thing evolution is taking place this time?

4. Why do you think genetics is the prerequisite for

evolution?
5. Define natural selection
 CHAP.3.
THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

• Several attempts have been made from time to time to

explain the origin of life on earth.
• As a result, there are several theories which offer their
own explanation on the possible mechanism of origin of
life.
• some of them such as Lamarck’s theory of “Inheritance
of acquired characters” and Darwin’s theory of
Natural selection which is still holds ground
• but they were modified with progress in genetics and
developed into the Modern synthetic theory which is
regarded as the most valid theory of evolution.
Theory of special creation
• According to this theory, all the different forms of life
that occur to day on planet earth have been created by
God, the almighty.
• This idea was found in ancient scriptures of almost
every religion.
• According to Hindu mythology, Lord Brhama, the God of
creation, created the living world in accordance to his
wish.
• According to the Christian belief, God created this
universe, plants, animals and human beings in about
six natural days.
• Special creation theory believes that the things have not
undergone any significant change since their creation.
• The theory of special creation was purely a religion concept,
acceptable only on the basis of faith. It has no specific basis.

Theories of catastrophism
• It is simply a modification of the theory of special creation.

• It states that there have been several creations of life by

God, each preceded by a catastrophe resulting from some
kind of geological disturbance.
• According to this theory, since each catastrophe(a sudden
event that causes very great trouble or distruction)
completely destroyed the existing life, each new creation
consisted of life form different from that of previous ones
 Theory of spontaneous generation
• assumes that living organisms could arise suddenly
and spontaneously from any kind of non living thing
matter.
• One of the firm believers in spontaneous generation
was Aristotle, the Greek philosopher 384-322BC
• He believed that dead leaves falling from tree in to a
pond would transform in to fishes and those falling on
soil would transform in to warms and insects.

• Egyptians believed that mud of the Nile river could

spontaneously give rise to many forms of life.

• The idea of spontaneous generation was popular almost

still seventeenth century.
• The theory of spontaneous generation was disproved
(invalidated) in the course of time due to the experiment
conducted by
• Fransisco Redi 1665,
• Spalanzi 1765
• Luis Pasteur 1864 in his famous swan neck experiment.

• This theory was disapproved, as scientists gave definite

proof that life comes from pre-existing life.
Cosmozoan theory
• According to this theory, life has reached this planet earth
from other heavenly bodies such as meteorites(a piece of
rock or other matter from space that has landed on earth),
in the form of highly resistance spores of some organisms.
• This idea was proposed by Richter I 1865 and supported by
Arrhenius (1908).
 Theory of chemical evolution
• This theory is also known as materialistic theory or
physico chemical theory.
• According to this theory, origin of life on earth is the
result of a slow and gradual process of chemical
evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion years
ago.
• This theory was proposed independently by two
scientists
– A . I. Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923

– J.B.S. Haldane, an English scientist in 1928

• Spontaneous generation of life, under the present
environment condition is not possible.
• Earth’s surface and atmosphere during the first billion years
of existence, were radically different from that of today’s
condition.
• The primitive earth’s atmosphere was a reducing type of
atmosphere and not oxidizing type.
• The first life arose from a collection of chemical substances
through a progressive series of chemical reaction.
• Solar radiation, heat radiated by earth and lighting must
have been the chief energy source for these chemical
reactions.
 Biochemical Evolution
The ancient atmosphere
• Earth is believed to have formed about 5 billion years ago.

• In the first 500 million years a dense atmosphere emerged from

the vapor and gases that were expelled during degassing of the
planet's center.

• These gases may have consisted of hydrogen (H2), water vapor,

methane (CH4), and carbon oxides.
• Prior to 3.5 billion years ago the atmosphere probably consisted
of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), water (H2O),

nitrogen (N2), and hydrogen.

• The hydrosphere was formed 4 billion years ago from the

condensation of water vapor, resulting in oceans of water in
• The most important feature of the ancient environment was the
absence of free oxygen.
• One billion years ago, early aquatic organisms called blue-green
algae began using energy from the Sun to split molecules of
H2O and CO2 and recombine them into organic compounds and

molecular oxygen (O2).

• This solar energy conversion process is known as

photosynthesis. Some of the photo synthetically created oxygen
combined with organic carbon to recreate CO2 molecules

• As oxygen in the atmosphere increased, CO2 decreased.

• High in the atmosphere, some oxygen (O2) molecules absorbed

energy from the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) rays and split to form
single oxygen atoms.
• These atoms combining with remaining oxygen (O2) to

form ozone (O3) molecules, which are very effective at

absorbing UV rays.
• The thin layer of ozone that surrounds Earth acts as a
shield, protecting the planet from irradiation by UV
light.
Stanley Miller experiment 1950s,
• Stanley Miller and Harold Urey performed a famous
experiment when they attempted to simulate what they
thought might be the conditions present at the
beginning of the Universe.
• Then they zapped them with an electric spark to create
lightning.
• In just a week, they produced amino acids, the
building blocks of protein, which is fundamental to life.
Modern Synthetic Theory
•involves five basic processes
– Mutations
– Variations
– Heredity
– natural selection
– Isolation
• In addition, three accessory processes affect the
working of these five basic processes.
– Migration of individuals from one population to another
– hybridization between races or closely related species
– chance acting on small populations may alter the way in which
natural selection guides the course of evolution (Stebbins, 1971).
–
Mutation
•Alteration in the chemistry of gene (DNA)
•Is able to change its phenotypic effect.
•Mutation can produce drastic changes or can remain
insignificant.
• Mutations can occur
– during replication
• (the process in which a cell splits itself into two identical copies
known as daughter cells)
• Normally each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the DNA
from the parent cell.

• Such a change may affect the protein that the gene produces and,
 – spontaneously
– by factors in the environment(mutagens). E
• xamples of mutagens that affect human DNA include ultraviolet
light, X rays, and various chemicals.
•Most of the mutations are harmful or deleterious and
lethal but
not all.
E.g. mutation in Sickled Red Blood
Cells
• A mutation in the gene
responsible for producing
hemoglobin in the blood causes a
disease known as sickle-cell
anemia. In this disease the
structure of the oxygen-carrying
protein in the human bloodstream
is severely altered.
• The mutation changes the
structure of red blood cells to a
Recombination
• The nature of genetic variations caused by reshuffling
of genes during sexual reproduction (recombination)
was very little known at the time of Darwin.
• Recombination is, new genotypes from already
existing genes - is of several kinds :
1. the production of gene combinations containing in the

same individual two different alleles of the same gene,

or the production of heterozygous individuals (meiosis)

2. the random mixing of chromosomes from two parents

to produce a new individual (sexual reproduction)

3. the mixing of a particular allele with a series of genes

not previously associated with it, by an exchange

between chromosomal pairs during meiosis, called

crossing over, to produce new gene combinations.

Chromosomal mutations such as
• Polyploidy
• Deletion
• Duplication
• Inversion
• Translocation also result in variation.

Heredity
• The transmission of characteristics or variations from
parent to offspring is an important mechanism of evolution.
• Organisms possessing hereditary characteristics that are
helpful, either in the animal’s native environment or in
some other environment that is open to it, are favored in
the struggle for existence.
• As a result, the off springs are able to benefit from the
advantageous characteristics of their parents.
Natural selection
• brings about evolutionary change by favoring
differential reproduction of genes.
• Differential reproduction of genes produces change in
gene frequency from one generation to the next.
• Natural selection does not produce genetic change, but
once genetic change has occurred it acts to encourage
some genes over others.
• Further, natural selection creates new adaptive
relations between population and environment, by
favoring some gene combinations, rejecting others and
constantly molding and modifying the gene pool.
E.g. Stonefish
• Stonefish have evolved an
ornate coloration that blends
well against the coral and mud
of their ocean bottom habitat.
• Natural selection may have
favored this coloration in
stonefish because well
camouflaged members of the
population were better able to
surprise small fish and other
prey.
Isolation
• Isolation of organisms of a species into several populations or
groups under psychic, physiological or geographical factors is
supposed to be one of the most significant factors responsible for
evolution.
• Geographical isolation includes physical barriers such as high
mountains, rivers, oceans and long distances preventing
interbreeding between related organisms.
• Anything that hinders interbreeding is called an isolating
mechanism.
• Geographic barriers isolate populations, leading to the formation of
entirely new species in a process called allopatric speciation.
• Physiological barriers help in maintaining the individuality of the
species, since these isolations do not allow breeding.
 CHAP.4.
EVIDENCE FOR THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Paleontology (Fossil)
• Study of fossils is called paleontology.
• Fossils are defined as preserved remains of living
organisms that existed on earth a long time ago.
• Fossils are formed by the preservation of the remains of
the organisms that existed in the earlier days.
• The dead bodies of the organisms are immediately
covered by materials which do not allow decomposition
at a fast rate.
• This preserves the dead bodies and forms them in to
fossils.
• The existence of dinosaurs has come to be known only
through fossils.
• In the addition to knowledge about the extinct forms,
fossils also provide links between two groups indicating
that perhaps one species evolved from the other.
• For example, a fossil called archaeopteryx show feature
of both reptiles (teeth) and birds (wings)
Geological time scale
• One way biologists learn about the evolutionary
relationships between species is by examining fossils.
• Fossils are ancient remains of living things created when
a dead plant or animal is buried under layers of mud or
sand that gradually turn into stone.
• Over time, the organism remains themselves may turn to
stone, becoming preserved within the rock layer in which
they came to rest.
• By measuring radioactivity in the rock in which a fossil is
embedded, paleontologists can determine the age of a
Eg. Paleontologists can
learn about prehistoric life
by studying the remains of
ancient insects, such as this
midge fly, trapped in tree
resin when they were alive.
The resin eventually
hardens and fossilizes into
amber. Occasionally whole
organisms are preserved in
this manner
Eg. This fossil cast shows
the remains of an
archaeopteryx, a birdlike
dinosaur. It had teeth and a
long, reptilelike tail covered
with feathers. The
archaeopteryx lived about
150 million years ago during
Dating method:
• In earth science, methods used to date the age of rocks
and minerals.
• By applying this information, geologists are able to
decipher the 4.6-billion-year history of the earth.
• The events of the geologic past
– uplift of mountain ranges
– opening and closing of seas
– flooding of continental interiors
– changes in climate—are all recorded in the
strata of the earth’s crust
• Geologic time scale is the time that covers earth’s total
geologic history from its origin to the present.

• The geologic time scale helps scientists think about the

history of the planet in the manageable section of time.
 This time is said Phanerozoic aeon which made up
of three Eras
– the Paleozoic (570 to 225Mya)
– Mesozoic (225 to 65Mya)
– Cenozoic (65Mya to present)
• The present geological time scale is based on dating method and
the record of life preserved in layers of rock.
• One of this dating is radiometric dating.

• Radiometric dating relies on a natural process that results in

change in particular chemical elements, the basic building
blocks of matter.
• This process is called radioactive decay and results as
radioactive elements in the rock spontaneously break down
into different elements, called “daughter products.”
• Each radioactive element decays at its own unique rate.

• The rate of decay is measured by the element’s half-life: the

amount of time required for 1⁄2 of the amount of the element
originally present to decay into the daughter product
 Geographical distribution
• The pattern of distribution and relationship of
organisms provide evidence for evolution.

• Inhabitants(population) of oceanic islands

• resembling forms in the nearest main land

• but showing some differences suggest

– that the resemblance are due to common origin and

– the differences are due to geographical isolation and evolution

taking place.

• Darwin noted that there were many types of mocking-

birds and finches, and they differed from island to
island.
• Some finches are evolved long beaks if the fruits on
that island were hard-shelled, some finches didn’t,
because they ate insects, etc.
An even clearer example can be drawn from tortoises.
• Some Galapagos tortoises evolved shells and necks
suitable for reaching up at bushes and trees.
• Other islands had grass, and so the tortoises were
grazers, therefore did not need to evolve in that
direction.
• Compare the two tortoises below.
• One was taken from an island with trees and bushes
- but no grass; the other was taken from an island with
grass:
Classification
 A comparison on the common features shows that an
evolutionary process and a pattern of relationships exist
between species.
 As lineages evolve and split and modifications are inherited,
the evolutionary paths of species diverge.
 This produces a branching pattern of evolutionary relationships.

 Such evolutionary change and relationships are represented in

"family trees," or 'phylogenetic' trees
 The trees show the relationships among organisms illustrate
the idea that all of life is related.
 There are different ways of obtaining data to build a
classification system:
1. Comparative anatomy (organ and tissue structure)
• studies of various types of organisms show structural and
functional differences and similarities between various
species.
• E.g., the basic structure of all the flowers is the same with
the whorls of calyx, corolla, androcium and gynocium.
• However, each species is different in the shape, size and
number of the individual members of the species.
• Similarly, the limb bone pattern of all animals with four
limbs (tetrapods) is the same pentadectyl limb.
• It shows modifications in the different species as shown in
the diagram
 organs that have a common basic form but are present
in different species would be termed homologous organ.
• Certain homologous organs have no function in some
species.
• Such as appendix(a small tube shaped part which is joined
to intestines on the right side of the body and has no use in
humans) in human beings which is non functional and its
homologous organ is functional in herbivores animals.
§ Such non functional homologous structures are called
the vestigial organs.
• Other examples of vestigial organs are the tail bone in
human which is homologous to the ones in the monkeys.
 2. Comparative morphology
involves the study of the external features of
organisms.
• There are three types of evidences that comparative
morphology reveals.
1. Analogous structure
• Structures that are similar because of the function
they carryout and similarity of external
appearance.
• However, these structures differ internally.
– E.g. Wings of bat and batter fly are similar in appearance and
function but internally they are different and have different
origin.
– Similarly thorns and spines seen in plants are also
analogous structures.
 2. Living fossils
• Some organisms form link between two different
groups.
• These organisms that show the features of two different
groups are called the living fossils as they provide a link
between the two groups.
• They are as important as fossils in providing linkages
and also they may have been surviving without such
variation for many years.
• E.g. , some living fossils are:
• Duck billed platypus, an egg laying mammal that forms a link
between reptiles and mammals.
• Amphibians that show link between fishes and reptiles

• Lung fish that shows link between amphibians and fishes

 Adaptive radiation
• The principle of adaptive radiation is based on two
evolutionary mechanisms.
– Divergent evolution
– Convergent evolution

• Divergent evolution involves the homologous

structures(a group of organisms modify a common
homologous structure to perform different functions).
• An example is the modifications of the pent dactyl
limbs (appendages) by seals and otters for swimming,
bats for flying, and by homo sapiens for handling.
• Another example of divergent evolution is the
modification of the basic mouth parts of the insects in
to the different types-sucking, biting, etc.
• It is because of this adaptive ability that the insects are
so widely present and are of so many varieties.
• Convergent evolution involves analogous structures.
– Analogous structures are those that show no
similarity in the internal structure or anatomy.
– However, they carry out similar structural or
physiological functions.
• For example, birds and bats both have wings,
while mice and crocodiles do not.

• Does that mean that birds and bats are more closely
related to one another than to mice and crocodiles? No

• when we examine bird wings and bat wings closely, we

see that there are some major differences.
 – Bat wings consist of flaps of skin stretched between the
bones of the fingers and arm.
– Bird wings consist of feathers extending all along the arm.

– These structural dissimilarities suggest that bird wings

and bat wings were not inherited from a common
ancestor with wings.
Comparative embryology
• The developmental stages that an organism goes.

• that an organism goes through repeat the evolutionary

history of the group to which the organism belongs.
• Heackel (1834-1919) formulated that ‘ontogeny
recapitulates phylogeny’
• the study of embryos and their development reveal that at
the embryonic stages there are features that are absent in
the adult form.
• These features are common to a group of organisms.

• For example, at a particular stage, all the vertebrate

embryos posses a single circulation with two chambered
heart showing no separation in to write and left halves.
• As the development progress, the embryos change
according to group they belong to-fish, amphibian, reptile,
bird or mammal.
• Given bellow is another example of the embryological
evidence that certain animals have common ancestor.
 Evidence from biochemistry
• Shows that certain similar molecules occur in different
groups of animals.
• This can be compared to the homologous structures.
• For example, the structure of hemoglobin present in
man, chimpanzee, gorilla and gibbon show remarkable
similarities.
• Hemoglobin is a protein that has four polypeptide
chains.
• Each Polly peptide chain is made up of a fixed number
of amino acids.
• The hemoglobin of chimpanzee differs from that of man
in only one amino acid, of gorilla in three amino acids
and of gibbon in eight amino acids.
• This indicates a common ancestry between the various
primate groups.
The Biochemical Evidence
• Scientists now understand that differences among
individuals arise in large part from differences in their
genes.
• It stands to reason that differences among species must
also derive from differences in their genes.
• If the hypothesis of common descent is correct, species
that appear to be closely related must have more similar
genes than species that are more distantly related.
• The most direct way to measure the overall similarity of
two species’ genes is to evaluate how similar their DNA.
African monkey 96.66% Gorilla 98.90% Chimpanzee 99.01% Human 100%
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 CHAP.5.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION (GENETIC BASIS OF EVOLUTION)

Genetic variation
• Measure of the tendency of individual in a population to
vary from one another.
• In another meaning variation is the occurrence of
differences among the individuals due to the
differences in their genetic composition and/or the
environment in which they were raised.
• Without genetic variation, some of the basic
mechanisms of evolutionary change cannot operate.
Source of genetic variation
• There are three primary sources of genetic variation:

1. Mutations
 are changes in the DNA.
 A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many
cases, evolutionary change is based on the accumulation
of many mutations.

2. Gene flow
 is any movement of genes from one population to another
and is an important source of genetic variation.

3. Sex
 can introduce new gene combinations into a population.

 This genetic shuffling is another important source of genetic

 Gene pool

• The total number of genes of every individual in an

interbreeding population.

• A large gene pool indicates high genetic diversity,

increased chances of biological fitness, and survival.

• A small gene pool indicates low genetic diversity,

reduced chances of acquiring biological fitness, and
increased possibility of extinction.

• Gene pool increases when mutation occurs and

survives.
• Gene pool decreases when the population size is
significantly reduced (e.g. famine, genetic disease, etc.).
• Some of the consequences when gene pool is small are
low fertility, and increased probability of acquiring
genetic diseases and deformities.
• Gene pool gives an idea of the number of genes, the
variety of genes and the type of genes existing in a
population.
• It can be used to help determine gene frequencies or the
ratio between different types of genes in a population.
Genotype Frequencies & Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
• Population geneticists study frequencies of genotypes and
alleles within populations rather than the ratios of
phenotypes that Mendelian geneticists use.
• In a constant environment, genes will continue to arrange
similarly for generations upon generations.
• The observation of this constancy led two researchers, G.
Hardy and W. Weinberg, to express an important
relationship in evolution.
• The law that describes this relationship bears their names
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.
• Genotype frequencies represent the abundance of each
genotype within a population as a fraction of the
population size.
• In other words, the frequency of the AA genotype
represents the fraction of the population homozygous for
the A allele.
• To calculate genotype frequencies,
– First determine the number of individuals with each genotype
present in the population.
– In the example used above, you would count the number of
individuals with the following genotypes: AA, Aa, and aa.
 Frequency of AA genotype = # AA individuals / population size.
 Frequency of Aa genotype = # Aa individuals / population size.
Allele Frequencies:
• Every individual has alleles that were passed on from their
parents.
• If we take all of the alleles of a group of individuals of the
same species we have what is called the gene pool.
• Allele frequency refers to an allele’s abundance among
individuals of a population
• The frequency or proportion of individuals in that population
that possess a certain allele is called the allele frequency.
• Allele Frequencies consider an individual locus and a
population of diploid individuals where two different alleles,
A and a, can be found at that locus.
• If your population consists of 100 individuals, then that
group possesses 200 alleles for this locus (100 individuals
x 2 alleles at that locus per individual).
• To calculate allele frequencies,
– first multiply the number of individuals in the population by 2 to
obtain the total number of alleles at that locus.
– Select one of the alleles for your first set of calculations.
– Let’s first choose the A allele from the example provided above.
• Individuals homozygous for the A allele will each possess 2 A alleles.
Multiply the number of AA homozygotes by 2 to calculate the number
of A alleles.

• Heterozygotes will each possess only one A allele.

• The total number of A alleles in the population = [(the number

of Aa heterozygotes) + (2 x the number of AA homozygotes)]
 – The frequency of the A allele = [(total number of A alleles in the
population) / (total number of alleles in population for that locus)]
– The frequency of the a allele = (1 - frequency of the A allele)

• Important Note: less you know that a population

meets Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumptions, you
must use the above procedure to calculate genotype
frequencies.

• If you know that a population meets Hardy-Weinberg

expectations, then you can calculate genotype
frequencies using allele frequencies and the Hardy-
Weinberg equations (see below).
• Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium theory refers to loci within
populations that experience no evolutionary
mechanisms (i.e., selective forces).

• For such populations the theory asserts that:

1. Allele and genotype frequencies should remain

constant from one generation to the next.

That is, no evolution should occur at these loci.

If, at a certain gene locus, there are only two alleles

each will have a frequency such that the frequency of
one allele plus the other equals one.
• Formally, we can state the allelic frequency in a
population as follows:
p = Frequency of allele A = freq(A)
q = Frequency of allele a = freq(a) and
p+q=1

2. Given a certain set of allele frequencies, genotype

frequencies should conform to those calculated using
basic probability.
In a one locus/two allele system such as the one
described above, the genotype frequencies should be
as follows:
– Frequency of AA genotype = (frequency of A allele)2
– Frequency of aa genotype = (frequency of a allele)2
– Frequency of Aa genotype = 2 x (frequency of A
allele) x (frequency of a allele).
• For example, in a sample group of 100 individuals from
a particular population, the gene for a certain trait has
alleles A and a, in which A is dominant over a.
• Each individual in the group carries two of these alleles
in one of the following combinations, or genotypes: AA,
Aa, or aa.
• If
– 33 individuals have the AA genotype(two A alleles)
– 54 individuals have the Aa genotype(one A and one a
allele)
– 13 individuals have the aa genotype(two a alleles).
• The actual frequency of each allele in the sample group
—that is, the number of all alleles that are A or a, is
determined by dividing the total number of each allele
type by the total number of all alleles.
• The actual frequency of the A allele in the sample
group is

Freq(A)=
Freq(aa)==0.4
• Within a population, the frequency of the possible
combinations of a pair of alleles at one locus is related
to the expansion of the binomial (p + q) 2.
• Remember that if we square one side of the equation
we must square the other side, such that:
(p + q) 2 = 12.
(p + q) x (p + q) = 12
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1,
Where p2 = Frequency of genotype AA
2pq = Frequency of genotype Aa
q2 = Frequency of genotype aa
• If the genotype frequencies obtained from a real
population do not agree with those predicted by the
Hardy-Weinberg Theory, then population geneticists
know that some evolutionary mechanism or
mechanisms must operate on the locus of interest.
• As such, the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Theory serves
as an important tool for population geneticists.
Assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Theory (Evolutionary Mechanisms)
– Populations will conform to the Hardy-Weinberg
Theory assertions only if no evolutionary forces or
mechanisms influence the loci under consideration.
– The assumptions that populations must meet in
order for the Hardy Weinberg assertions to hold
include:
– Large population size (i.e., no genetic drift).
– Random mating:
– No mutation
– No gene flow or migration
– No natural selection
QUIZ 2(5%)
Nonrandom Mating
• Not all natural selection occurs as a result of interactions
between a species and its environment.
• Competition within a species also drives evolution.

• Consider how the individuals of many sexually reproducing

species have a distinct male or female phenotype.
• Individuals of one sex (often males) tend to be more
colorful, larger, and more aggressive than individuals of
the other sex.
• sexual selection is the genetic winners out reproduce
others of a population because they are better at securing
mates
Random Genetic Drift
• Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies
over time, brought about by chance alone.
• We explain genetic drift in terms of probability —the
chance that some event will occur.
• The probability of an event occurring is expressed as a
percentage.
• For instance, if 10 million people enter a drawing, each
has the same probability of winning: 1 in 10 million, or
a very improbable 0.00001 percent.
• Remember, sample size is important in probability.

• For example, every time you flip a coin, there is a 50%

chance it will land heads up.
• With 10 flips, the proportion of times heads actually land up
may be very far from 50 percent. With 1,000 flips, that
proportion is more likely to be near 50 percent.
• We can apply the same rule to populations.

• Because population sizes are finite, there will be random

changes in allele frequencies.
• These random changes have a minor impact on large
populations.
• However, such changes can lead to dramatic shifts in the
• Random change in allele frequencies can lead to the
loss of genetic diversity
• These outcomes of genetic drift are possible in all
populations, but they are more likely to occur in small
ones.
• When all individuals of a population are homozygous for
one allele, we say that the allele has become fixed.
• Once an allele is fixed, its frequency will not change
again unless mutation or gene flow introduces new
alleles.
Bottlenecks
• A bottleneck is a drastic reduction in population size
brought about by severe pressure.
• In nature, a population can be reduced dramatically in
size by events such as
– Earthquakes
– Floods
– Drought
– Human destruction of habitat.
• Such events may randomly eliminate most of the
members of the population without regard to its genetic
composition.
• A severe temporary reduction in size such as this is
known as a population bottleneck.
• Bottlenecks occur when a population or species is reduced
to a few reproducing individuals whose offspring then
increase in numbers over subsequent generations to re
establish the population.
• If a contagious disease, habitat loss, or overhunting nearly
wipes out a population, the allele frequencies in the
survivors will have been altered at random.
– Example 1, northern elephant seals were once on the point of
extinction, with only twenty known survivors in the world in
the 1890s.
– Hunting restrictions implemented since then have allowed the
population to recover to about 170,000 individuals.
– Every seal is homozygous for all of the genes analyzed to
date.
– Example 2, the African cheetah population lost a substantial
amount of its genetic variation due to a bottleneck effect.
Founder Effect
• Geography and population size may also influence genetic drift via the
founder effect.
• The key difference between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect
is that the founder effect involves
– Migration: a small group of individuals separates from a larger
population and establishes a colony in a new location.
– For example, a few individuals may migrate from a large continental
population and become the founders of an island population.
• The founder effect has two important consequences.

1. The founding population is expected to have less genetic

variation than the original population from which it was derived.
2. As a matter of chance, the allele frequencies in the founding
population may differ markedly from those of the original
population.
– For example, imagine a patch of pink and yellow lily flowers on
a mainland.
– By chance, a seabird lands on a yellow lily, and a few seeds
stick to its feathers.
– The bird flies to a remote island and drops the seeds.

– Most of the seeds have the allele for yellow flowers.

– The seeds sprout, and a small, isolated population of lily plants

establishes itself; most of the plants have yellow flowers.
– In the absence of gene flow or natural selection for flower color,
genetic drift may fix the allele for yellow flowers.
Gene Flow
• is the phenomenon in which individuals migrate from one
population to another population and the migrants are able to
breed successfully with the members of the recipient
population.
• It depends not only on migration, but also on the ability of the
migrants’ alleles to be passed to subsequent generations.
• In nature, it is common for individuals to migrate in both
directions.
What are the main consequences of bidirectional migration?

– Depending on its rate, migration tends to reduce differences in

allele frequencies between neighboring populations.
– Migration can also enhance genetic diversity within a population.
Selection
1. Natural Selection and its role in evolution
– differential survival and reproduction alters allele
frequencies of a population over many generations.
– We can see NS in many ways
A. Directional Selection
 allele frequencies shift in a consistent direction,
 forms at one end of a range of phenotypic
variation become more common over time.
 For examples: papered moth from in preindustrial
England show evidence of directional selection in
which environment can result in directional
selection.
B. Stabilizing Selection
 an intermediate form of a trait is favored, and
extreme forms are not
 preserve the midrange phenotypes in a
population
 Example: the body weight of sociable weaver birds
in African savana.
 Since foraging is not easy in habitat of an African
savanna, and leaner(thin) birds do not store enough
fat to avoid starvation.
 A scanty food supply selects against birds with low
body weight.
 Fatter birds may be more attractive to predators,
and not as responsive when escaping.
 Predators select against birds of high body weight.
Thus, birds of intermediate weight have the
selective advantage, and make up the bulk of
sociable weaver populations.
C. Disruptive Selection
• forms of a trait at both ends of a range of variation are
favored, and intermediate forms are selected against.
• Example, black-bellied seed cracker native to Cameroon.

• These finches are dimorphic for bill size.

• They tend to have either a large bill or a small one—but no

sizes between.
• The finches feed mainly on the seeds of two types of sedge(a
grass like plant).
• One sedge produces hard seeds; the other, soft seeds.

• Small billed birds are better at opening the soft seeds, and
large-billed birds are better at cracking the hard ones.
• During Cameroon’s wet seasons, all seeds are abundant, and
• During the region’s dry seasons, sedge seeds are scarce,
and each bird focuses on eating the seeds that it opens most
efficiently.
• Small-billed birds feed mainly on soft seeds, and large-billed
birds feed mainly on hard seeds.
• Birds with intermediate-sized bills cannot open either type of
seed as efficiently as the other birds, so they are less likely
to survive the dry seasons.
2. Artificial Selection
– The practice among breeders of choosing a select group of
organisms from a population to become the parents of the next
generation is termed artificial selection.
– the process of choosing specific individuals is with preferred
phenotypes
– the breeders select and perpetuate those variant types that
interested them or seemed useful to them. For example
 6. SPECIATION
Is there d/c b/n species and speciation?
Species
• refers to a group of organisms that maintains a
distinctive/characteristic set of attributes in nature.
• groups of actually or potentially interbreeding
populations, which are reproductively isolated
from other such groups.
• species is a population of individuals with similar
structural and functional characteristics, which
have a common ancestry and in nature breed only
with each other.
Speciation is the process by which new species are
formed via evolution.
• Two genetically divergent populations can form new
species only when they become geographically isolated
from each other.
• If a large population is fragmented into two or more units
which are geographically isolated from one another, each
independent unit follows different evolutionary paths.
Because,
1. Each isolated unit of a population may have its own type of
mutation which provides raw materials for organic diversity.

2. The mutations and gene combinations which appear in different

isolated population units will have different adaptive values in the
new environments.

3. The organisms which originally colonize a certain geographical

area and form an isolated population may not be representative of
the group from which they came so that different gene frequencies
exist from the beginning.

4. The size of the new population may become quite small at various
time so that a genetic “bottleneck” is formed, from which all
subsequent organisms will arise.
Characteristics for identifying species are
A. morphological traits
• Organisms are classified as the same species if their
anatomical traits appear to be very similar.
• How ever it has a few drawbacks
• it may be difficult to decide how many traits to consider
• it is difficult to analyze quantitative traits, such as size and
weight, which vary in a continuous way among members of
the same species.
• the degree of dissimilarity that distinguishes different
species may not show a simple relationship
B. ability to interbreed
– in nature, the members of one species have the potential to
interbreed with one another to produce viable, fertile
offspring but cannot successfully interbreed with members
of other species.
– This reproductive isolation prevents one species from
successfully interbreeding with other species
– however it has some draw backs

– it does not apply to asexual species

– it can-not be applied to the identification of extinct

species.
– may be difficult to determine if two populations are
C. molecular features
– commonly used to determine if two different
populations are different species.
– Evolutionary biologists often compare
• DNA sequences within genes
• gene order along chromosomes
• chromosome structure
• chromosome number to identify similarities and
differences among different populations.
• D. ecological factors
– an organism’s habitat can be used to distinguish one
species from another.
E. evolutionary relationships
– based on an analysis of the fossil record.
– by the analysis of DNA sequences.

Species Concepts
– way to define the concept of a species

– provide an approach for distinguishing one species from

another

1. biological species concept.

• According to this idea, a species is a group of individuals
whose members have the potential to interbreed with one
another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring but
cannot successfully interbreed with members of other
species.
2. ecological species concept
• According to this viewpoint, each species occupies an
ecological niche, which is the unique set of habitat
resources that a species requires, as well as its influence on
the environment and other species.
3. evolutionary lineage concept
• According to this idea, a species should be defined based on
the separate evolution of lineages.
• Each species has evolved from a specific series of
ancestors and, as a consequence, forms a group of
organisms with a particular set of characteristics.
• Because of its generality, the general lineage concept has
 Modes of speciation
•Speciation of species may occur by the following
activities:
A. Instantaneous speciation (through individuals)
1. Genetically
(a) By single mutation in asexual “species”
(b) By macro genesis(complete genetic reconstruction or
systemic
mutation)

2. Cytologically, in partially or wholly sexual

species
(a) By chromosomal mutations or
aberrations(inversion,
B. Gradual speciation (through populations)
• Depending on the geographic locations of the
evolving populations and the environment that a
species occupies, cladogenesis is categorized as
» allopatric
» parapatric
» Sympatric
Allopatric speciation:
• Greek allos, other, and Latin patria, homeland

• happens when members of a species become

geographically separated from the other members

• also occur via a founder effect, which is thought to be

more rapid and frequent than allopatric speciation caused
by biological events.

• The founder effect, occurs when a small group migrates to

a new location that is geographically separated from the
Parapatric Speciation:
• Occurs when members of a species are partially
separated
• The geographic separation is not complete.
– For example, members of a given species may invade a new
ecological niche at the border of an existing population.
– Alternatively, a mountain range may divide a species into two
populations, but breaks occur in the range where the two
groups are connected physically.
– In these zones of contact, the members of two populations can
interbreed, although this tends to occur infrequently.
• hybrid zones exist where two populations can
interbreed and form speciation.
Sympatric Speciation:
• Occurs when a new species arises in the same
geographic area as the species from which it was
derived.
• common way for sympatric speciation to occur is the
formation of polyploids.
• Polyploidy is so frequent in plants that it is a major form
of speciation but less in animals
• Complete non disjunction of chromosomes during
gamete formation can increase the number of
chromosome sets
– within a single species (autopolyploidy)
Development of reproductive isolating mechanism (pre
and post zygotic)
• reproductive isolation prevents one species from
successfully interbreeding with other species.
• The ways in which reproductive isolation occur are
classified as
1. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms: which prevent the
formation
of a zygote
2. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms: which prevent the
development of a viable and fertile individual after
fertilization has taken place.
Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms
– Habitat isolation: Species may occupy different
habitats so they never come in contact with each other.
– Temporal isolation: Species have different mating or
flowering seasons, mate at different times of day, or
become sexually active at different times of the year.
– Sexual isolation: Sexual attraction between males
and females of different animal species is limited due
to differences in
• behaviour,

• physiology, or

• morphology.
– Mechanical isolation: The anatomical structures of
genitalia prevent mating between different species.
– Gametic isolation: Gametic transfer takes place,
but the gametes fail to unite with each other.
– This can occur because the male and female
gametes fail to attract, because they are unable to
fuse, or because the male gametes are enviable in
the female reproductive tract of another species.
Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms

• Hybrid in viability: The egg of one species is fertilized by the

sperm from another species, but the fertilized egg fails to develop
past early embryonic stages.

• Hybrid sterility: The interspecies hybrid survives, but it is sterile.

For example, the mule, which is sterile, is a cross between a female
horse (Equus caballus) and a male donkey (Equus asinus).

• Hybrid breakdown: The F1 interspecies hybrid is viable and

fertile, but succeeding generations (i.e., F2, etc.) become
increasingly in viable.

• This is usually due to the formation of less fit genotypes by genetic

recombination
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
• It is evolutionary process leading up to the appearance of
modern humans.
• It is a long process of change by which people originated
from apelike ancestors.
• Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral
traits shared by all people evolved over a period of time
• Humans arose from an ancestor common to most
contemporary primates that existed 35 million years ago.
• They diverged from the ancestors of their closest primate
relatives, the chimpanzees, about 6 million years ago
• The scientific study of human evolution is called paleo
anthropology.
• Paleoanthropology is a subfield of anthropology, the
study of human culture, society, and biology
• Paleoanthropologists search for the roots of human
physical traits and behavior
• study of human evolution also involves many scientific
disciplines, including
• anthropology, primatology, archaeology, ethology,
linguistics, evolutionary psychology, embryology and
genetics
 Early Primates

• Humans belong to the scientific order named Primates

• All primates, including humans, share at least part of a

set of common characteristics that distinguish them from
other mammals.
• Many of these characteristics evolved as adaptations for
life in the trees, the environment in which earlier primates
evolved

• These include
– overlapping fields of vision,

– limbs and hands adapted for clinging on and

 They are
– Prosimians (~58mya)

– Monkeys (35mya)

– Apes (23mya)

– Hominids (~6mya)

• The first arboreal mammals probably resembled shrews:

– long snouts(nose).

– Good sense of smell.

– Probably nocturnal.

– Very active.
Primate Characteristics
• Binocular Color Vision
• Similar Hands
 • Mobile Limbs

Most primates have flat nails as well as sensitive

pads on the undersides of fingers and toes.
– Many also have both an opposable big toe and
thumb
Mobile limbs and clawless opposable digits allow
primates to freely grasp and release tree limbs.
 Other important features

– Upright posture.
– Small litter size.
– Expanded forebrain, larger brain capacity.
Two main groups of primates:

1. Prosimians – lemurs, tarsiers, lorises, pottos &

2. Anthropoids – monkeys, apes and man

a. Monkeys:
• Old world monkeys
• New world monkeys
 New World Old World
Monkey: Monkey:
•Flat face •Long snout
•Wide nostrils •Close nostrils
•Prehensile tail •Non-prehensile
tail
Proconsul- Ancestor to Hominoids
• This skull is a skull of Proconsul africanus from the
Kenya National
Museum.

East
Africa
Rift
Valley
When we compare skeleton of monkey/ape with that of
man(see the figure)
Hominids
• Bipedal primates
• To be Human
– standard primate characteristics
– upright, bipedal posture
– much expanded brain
– well defined sexual dimorphism
– hidden estrus
– altered female sexual response
– extended childhood
– language
– society
– culture
 The taxonomic position of humans in the animal
kingdom
Here are taxonomic position of humans
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria
Order: Primates
Suborder: Anthropoidea
Superfamily: Hominoidea
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens

• The times of existence of the various hominids are

based on fossil.
• Each species may have existed earlier to the recent
from top to down the column as shown.
 The following chronology shows history of man

SPECIES TIME PERIOD

Ardipithicus ramidus 5 to 4 million years ago
Australopithecus
4.2 to 3.9 million years ago
anamensis
Australopithecus afarensis 4 to 2.7 million years ago
Australopithecus africanus 3 to 2 million years ago
Australopithecus robustus 2.2 to 1.6 million years ago
Homo habilis 2.2 to 1.6 million years ago
Homo erectus 2.0 to 0.4 million years ago
400 to 200 thousand years
Homo sapiens archaic
ago
Homo sapiens 200 to 30 thousand years
neandertalensis ago
Extinct and extant hominids
• The word hominidae is used to describe the total
member species of the human family that have lived
since the last common ancestor of both man and the
apes.

• A hominid is an individual species within that family.

• A hominoid,
– commonly called an ape,
– is a member of the super family hominoidea:
– extant members are the lesser apes (gibbons) and
great apes.
• A hominine
– is a member of the subfamily homininae:
– gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos and humans
(excludes orangutans).
• A hominin
– is a member of the tribe hominini:
– modern humans and their extinct relatives.
• A human is a member of the genus Homo, of which
Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within
that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving
subspecies
 Important hominid features
Some important are
• are large
• can use tools
• use their hands, even if some species usually walk on all
fours
•have two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three
molars(for both upper and lower teeth)
Hominids have the following reproduction pattern: after
an 8-9 month gestation period, a single young
(occasionally twins …etc born).
The evolutionary relationships among the hominids
• After examining many different kinds of genetic
information
• paleoanthropologists learned the sequence of
divergences among hominoid species.
• They said Chimpanzees and humans are sister species,
than with gorillas, orangutans, and gibbons
successively more divergent from the human line.
• Although geneticists have learned much about the
sequence of hominoid divergences, it has remained
difficult to establish the dates at which those divergences
happened.
• Geneticists infer rates of genetic change by comparing
different species with each other.
• If there is good paleontological evidence that two lineages
diverged at a particular date in the past, then the current
genetic differences between the two lineages can be used
to estimate the rate of genetic change in the past.
• The process of estimating dates in this way, assuming that
genes diverge at a more or less constant rate from a
Migration of hominids out of Africa
• Hominids continued to develop within Africa for the next few million
years
• Africa is the birthplace of hominids, with the oldest hominid discovered
yet, Ardipithecus ramidus, appearing nearly 4.5 million years ago.
• A new hominid, Homo erectus, which first appears in sub-Saharan
Africa about 1.88–1.90 Million years ago, initiated the first migrations
from Africa to other parts of the World
• H. erectus became the first hominid to journey beyond the African
continent
• so that it attained the pre adaptations conducive for long-distance
migration.
• Before and during this time, the climate had been
undergoing changes worldwide; in certain regions,
increased aridity caused a shift in habitat and
vegetation.
• As a result of this climatic process, H. erectus
developed a suite of physiological features which link it
more closely with modern hominids than earlier
hominids—in particular, lower limb lengths and a nasal
morphology similar to those found in modern humans.
• There has been heated debate as to what led to this
development of longer limbs, which preceded
migration; were longer lower limbs an adaptation for
END OF THE COURSE

CONGRATULATION
 Quize
• Which type of organism more related to
human ?_________________________
• After it has been evolved from which country
human being migrated?__________________
• What is a field of science which studies human
evolution?________________________
• What are the characteristics in which human
being is share with that of primates?
• What are scientific disciplines involved in the
study of human evolution?