CONTROL AND

CO-ORDINATION

Dhruva Pardeshi
 Introduction
Living organism like plants and animals respond and
react to environmental factors or stimulus.

The method of reacting towards the stimulus is not

same in plants and animals.
For ex: plants bend towards light but animals do not
bend towards light

While Amoeba reacts to the presence of food by

moving towards the food particles.
 Plants reacts towards stimulus in a very limited way
because Plants do not have a nervous system like
animals have.

 The working together of the various organs of an

organism in a systematic manner so as to produce
proper response to the stimulus is called as co-
ordination.

 In multicellular organisms, control and co-ordination in

animals is brought about by nervous, muscular and
endocrine systems.
Control and co-ordination in plants
Plants need internal c-ordination if their
growth and development is to proceed.

Plants cannot control and analyze or

memorize as human beings because they
lack brain and other parts of nervous
system.

However, plants responds to external

stimuli like light, touch, gravitational force
etc
Plant have two types of movements:
i. Movement independent of growth
ii. Movements dependent on growth

Plants coordinate their responses against environmental stimuli by using

hormones called as plant hormones (phytohormones)

Plants posses only chemical coordination

MODE OF ACTION:
I. Affecting the growth of the plants and as a result part of the plant show
movements.
II. Affecting the shape of plant cell by changing the amount of water in
them(turgor pressure) resulting in swelling or shrinking.

PLANT MOVEMENTS
I) Nastic movements:
The non-directional movements occur due to turgor changes.
Plants reveal immediate response to stimulus but do not involve growth.
Nastic movements includes Seismonastic movements and Nyctinastic
movements.
 Seismonastic
movements
 Movement that occur in response to
touch.

 Movements are very quick.

 For eg: Movements seen in ‘touch-me-not’

plants or also called as ‘Chui-mui’ or
lajwanti.
 Nyctinastic movements
 The movements involving the durinal
variation in the position of flowers and
leaves of many plants in day and night.

 Also called as sleep movements

 For e.g.- Dandelion flower opens up in

the morning in bright light and closes
when light fades away.
 Tropic movements
Tropic movement/Tropism is the movement
of plants in which direction of movement is
guided by the direction of external stimulus
causing the movement.
 Tropic movements are very very slow.

The movements of the plants can be either

towards the stimulus or away from the stimulus.
 If the movement is towards the stimuli, then it
is positive tropism

 If the movement is away from the stimuli

then it is negative tropism
 TYPES OF TROPISM
Light, force of gravity, chemical substances
and water are the four common stimuli in the
environment to which the plants responds.

 Phototropic movement (light dependent)

 Geotropic movement (gravity dependent)
 Chemotropic movement (chemical
dependent)
 Hydrotropic movement (water dependent)
 Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)
 Phototropism
Phototropism is the growth movement of
parts of plants in response to light.
 Growth towards a source of light is called positive
phototropism.
 Growth away from the source of light is termed negative
phototropism. Stems usually show positive phototropic
movement, while roots usually show negative phototropic
movement.
 Geotropism
Upward and downward growth of
shoots and roots in response to pull of
earth or gravity.
 Movement or growth of plant in the
direction of gravity is called as
positive geotropism.

 Movement or growth of plant part

 Chemotropism
Movement of a part of the plant in
response to a chemical stimulus.

For ex: Growth of pollen tube towards a

chemical which is produced by an ovule
during the process of fertilization in a flower
 Hydrotropism
Movement of part of plant
in response to water.

For ex: Bending of roots of a plant

towards water shows positive
hydrotropism.
Plant hormones or Phytohormones
“Phytohormones is a chemical substance
which produced naturally in plants and is
capable of translocation and regulating
one or more physiological process.”
 Plant hormones helps to co-ordinate growth,
development and responses to the environment.
Various other activities like (i) Breaking of dormancy,
(ii) Opening and closing of
stomata,
(iii) Falling of leaves,
(iv) Fruit growth,
(v) Fruit ripening,
(vi) Ageing of plants,
(vii)Tropism and nastic
movements etc.
are also controlled by various phytohormones.
Types of Phytohormones
 Several types of hormones which stimulates or
inhibits the growth of plants.
 Five types of hormones which controls plant
hormones.

I. Auxin
Auxin is synthesized on the root and shoot tips and
are produced relatively in lesser amount in the roots.

Auxin produced at the shoot are transported to root

through parenchyma (a vascular tissue in plants).
 FUNCTIONS OF AUXINS
 1. Cell enlargement: Auxin causes cell enlargement by solubilisation
of carbohydrates, loosening of cell wall micro-fibrils, synthesis of new
wall material and increase in respiration.

 2. Apical dominance: In many plants, apical bud suppresses the

growth of lateral buds. This condition is known as apical dominance.
A plant with strong apical dominance has little or no branching like in
sunflower.
 3. It is responsible for the photo-tropism and geotropism.

 4. It promotes root initiation.

 5. It induces parthenocarpy (production of fruit without fertilization).

 6. Increases the number of female flowers.

 7. Healing of injury in plants.

 8. Promotes xylem differentiation.

APICAL
DOMINANCE
Apical dominance is the phenomenon where the main,
central stem of the plant is dominant over (i.e., grows more
strongly than) other side stems i.e. a branch
Apical dominance occurs when the shoot apex inhibits the growth of
lateral buds so that the plant may grow vertically.

It is important for the plant to devote energy to growing upward so that

it can get more light to undergo photosynthesis.

The apical bud produces a hormone, auxin that inhibits growth of the
lateral buds down on the stem.
SEED DORMANCY
Breaking dormancy of a seed is like waking it up from a sleep.

Water, oxygen, light and temperature are a few factors that will increase
the germination percentage and help controling timing of germination.

Water and oxygen need to penetrate the seed coat to initiate

the break of dormancy.
PARTHENOCARPY
Parthenocarpy is a process of developing seedless fruits.

In this process, the ovules are not fertilised leading to no formation of

seed/s within the fruits.

Such fruit does not have embryo or endosperm.

II. GIBBERELLIN
 Produced at the apices of young leaves, embryo, buds etc and are transported
through xylem.
 Also found in most of the groups of plants like algae, fungi, mosses, ferns etc.

Functions of Gibberellins:
1. Parthenocarpy: Gibberellins have been found to be effective in inducing
pathenocarpy in tomatoes, apple etc.

2. Breaking of dormancy: These can effectively break the dormacy of potato

tuber, winter buds and seeds of many trees.

3. Increase in fruit size: These increases the number and fruit size of grapes.

4. Inter-nodal elongation: It helps in the elongation of the stem but not in roots.

6. It helps in the germination of the seed.

7. It is used to delay the ripening in plants like citrus.

 Cytokinins
 Found at the tissues where rapid
growth is taking place like growing
fruits, root tips and shoot buds.
 Cytokinin is also present in the
coconut water (liquid endosperm).
 FUNCTIONS OF

CYTOKININS
1. Cell division: These are found in a higher amount where
rapid division is going on.

 2. Apical dominance: Cytokinin and auxin acts

antagonistically in the control of apical dominance.

 3. They helps to produce chloroplast in leaves. These are

also called anti-ageing hormones.

 4. Flowering: It helps in inducing flowering in certain

species of plants.

 5. It promotes phloem transport.

 6. It also promotes accumulation of salts in the cells.

 7. It promotes production of female flowers.

 ABSCISIC ACID
It is major inhibitor of growth in plants and
is antagonistic to all the three growth
promoters.

These are mainly produced in mature

leaves but it is also synthesized in stems,
fruits and seeds and then transported to
other parts through vascular tissues.
 FUNCTION OF ABCISIC
1. ACID
It accelerates the formation of abscission layer..

2. Transpiration: It helps in closing of stomata by causing potassium

ions to leave the guard cells during periods of water shortage.

3. It promotes bud dormancy in seeds during winters.

4. Seed dormancy: It induces seeds dormancy. Thus it helps the seed

to withstand desiccation and other unfavorable factors.

5. It inhibits cambial activity.

6. Flowering: in induces flowering in some short day plants like

strawberry.

7. It plays an important role in seed development, maturation and

dormancy.

8. It induces synthesis of carotenoids in green oranges making them

yellow.
 ETHYLENE
 It is the only gaseous growth hormone.

 It is produced by almost all the organs but maximum

production occurs in ripening fruits and senescent leaves.

 High concentration of auxin leads to the formation of

ethylene.

Functions of ethylene:
1. It helps in ripening of fruits.

2. Inhibition of stem elongation and stimulation of transverse growth by

causing increase in the girth of the plant and promotes horizontal growth.

3. It promotes geotropism in roots.

4. It increases the speed of CELL AGEING
and permanently stops the cell division.

5. It also induces abscission of leaves.

6. It helps in breaking the dormancy and

initiates germination in peanut seeds.

7. Root initiation: Low concentration of

ethylene induces rooting and growth of
lateral roots and root hairs.

8. Flowering: It is used to initiate flowering

and synchronizing fruit set in pineapples.
 Control and Co-ordination in Animals

 In
all the animals belonging from
coelenterate to Mammalia, control
and co-ordination body functions is
enabled by specialized cells called
as nerve cells or neuron.

 Inaddition, Animals also have

endocrine system that is formed
from number of endocrine glands
NEURON- FUNCTIONAL UNIT
OF NERVOUS SYSTEM.
 “Neurons are the fundamental unit of
the nervous system specialized to
transmit information to different parts
of the body.”
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous
system.

Neuron is composed of three parts:

i. Cyton
ii. Dendrites
iii. Axon

I] Cyton:
Also called as cell body.
• Has a granular cytoplasm called as neuroplasm.

• Centric nucleus with nucleolus.

• Numerous fine thread like structure called as

neuurofibrils for conduction of nerve impulse.

• Rough ER for protein synthesis.

• Number of mitochondria for for providing energy for

II] DENDRITES:
• One or more Small
sized, always branched
nerve processes.

• Receives the
information from the
receptor cells, initiates
the electrical impulse
and carries it towards
the cyton.
III] AXON:
• Larged sized nerve processes.

• Covered with mylein sheath.

• Carries nerve impulse away from

the Cyton towards the nerve
ending.
 Types of Neurons
There are three types of neurons:
i. Sensory
Neuron
ii. Motor Neuron
iii. Accessory
Neuron
 Nervous co-ordination in
Higher animals
Higher organisms especially the higher vertebrates including
human beings,
Three types of system co-ordinates with one another to control the
body functions etc.

I. RECEPTOR ORGANS:
It is formed from receptor or sense
organs which in a group of highly
specialized cells receive the stimuli.

Each receptor organs, receives the

specific type of stimuli and changes into
a specific nerve impulse.
 Receptors are of following types:
1. Photoreceptors- 4.
Gustoreceptors
2. Phonoreceptors 5.
Thigmoreceptors
II. Nervous system
3. Olfactoryreceptors
Analyses the sensory impulse and
initiates the appropriate motor nerve
impulse which are carried to effector
organs.

III. Effector organs

Formed of effector organs which
REFLEX ACTION, INVOLUNTARY
AND VOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Animals perform three type of actions:

I. Reflex action
II. Involuntary actions
III. Voluntary actions
Reflex Action
Reflex action is an unconscious, automatic and involuntary
response of effector organs i.e. muscles and glands in response
to stimuli monitored by the spinal cord.

Some common example of reflex action:

(i) Blinking of your eyes in response to foreign

particles that entered your eyes.

(ii) Sneezing or coughing if any unwanted

particle entered your nose.

Watering
(iii) of mouth at the sight of tasty food.

(iv)Withdrawal of the leg by a person walking

barefeet if happens to step on a nail.
 Reflex Arc
The pathway that takes the nerve
impulses and responses in a reflex
action
i.e. from the receptor organs like
skin to the spinal cord and from the
spinal cord to the effector organs
like muscle.
Advantages of reflex
action
 Enables the body to generate quick
responses to harmful stimuli and
protect our body.

 Minimizing the overloading of the

brain.
Voluntary and Involuntary action
Voluntary Action
 Actions which needs thinking and
are performed knowingly.

 Controlled by the cerebellum part

of the hind brain.

 e.g. Walking in a straight line,

Picking up a pencil
Involuntary Action
 Actions are not under the control
of the will of an individual and
are automatic response to stimuli.

 Involuntary actions are controlled

by hind brain and mid brain.

 E.g. Regular beating of heart,

blood pressure, movement of
diaphragm during regular
respiration etc.
Human Nervous System

Central nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

Central Nervous System
 Forebrai
Cerebrum
n

Midbrain
Fore Brain

Hindbrain
Olfactory
lobes
Dicephalon
 Cerebrum
 Largest part of the brain.

 Consists of two cerebral

hemisphere joined together by a
band of thick nerve fibres called
corpus callosum.

 Fore brain is divided into four

lobes.
 These lobes control different
activities of the body like
muscular activities, touch,
Olfactory Lobes
Diencephalon
 Lies in the inferior side of the cerebrum
and can only be visible from the ventral
side of the brain.

 Roof of the area- Epithalamus.

Side of the area- Thalamus
Floor of the area- hypothalamus

 Hypothalamus has a control centers for

hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, body
temperature etc.
 Midbrain

Midbrain controls
reflex movements:
i. The head, neck
and trunk in
response to visual
and auditory
stimuli
ii. The eye muscles,
changes in pupil
size as well as
shape of the eye
Hindbrain
 Spinal Cord
 Spinal cord extends from the medulla
oblongata portion of the brain, passing
through the neural canal of the vertebral
column.

 In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves are

present.

 Each spinal nerve is a mixed nerve,

consisting both sensory and motor nerve
fibres.
Functions of Spinal Cord
 Spinal cord is the main centre of reflex
action.

 Conducts the nerve impulses to and from

the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System
 PNS constitutes the cranial and spinal
nerves along with their branches.

 12 pairs of Cranial nerves arising from the

brain and spreading throughout the head.

 31 pairs of Spinal nerve arising from

spinal cord.
 Mixed nerves carries both sensory and
motor nerve fibres.
Autonomic Nervous
System
 ‘Self- governing nervous system’.
 Operates automatically or involuntarily.

 Includes all the responses against

stimuli which are not under the control
of animal.

 ANS can be classified anatomically and

functionally into sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system.

 Both the systems have involuntarily

opposing effects.
. If one system exerts stimulatory effect on an organ than
the other system exerts inhibitory effect on that organ.

Sympathetic
Nervous System
Para-sympathetic
 Increases the Nervous System
contraction and  Decreases the
heart rate. contraction and
 Constriction of heart rate.
blood vessels.  Dilation of blood
 Dilates pupils. vessels.
 Increases the  Constricts
secretion of pupils.
gastric juice in  Stimulates the
stomach. secretion of
 Relaxation. gastric juice in
 Chemical Co-ordination in
Animals
 Cells cannot continuously generate
and transmit electrical impulses thus,
multicellular organism use another
means of communication between cells
termed as CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION.

 Many important functions are operated

by the endocrine system in a co-
ordinated manner with the central
nervous system.
 Therefore, these two systems are
termed as NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM.
 Hormonal Co-ordination
 Information is sent through a chemical
messenger via blood stream.

 Information travel slowly but the

effect generated is more prolonged.

Produced in special organ termed as

ENDOCRINE GLAND.

Endocrine glands are present in different

regions of the body and work in co-
ordination as an integrated system.
Endocrine glands are also known as
‘ductless gland’.

Because they have no ducts and their

secretion is directly into the blood.

Endocrine glands secrets variety of

chemical substances known as HORMONES.

“HORMONES THUS ARE THE CHEMICAL

SUBSTANCES SECRETED BY ENDOCRINE
GLANDS AND ARE THE MEANS OF
INFORMATION TRANSFER.”
Functions of Hormones
i. Synthesized by the endocrine gland and are
secreted directly into the blood stream.

ii. Produced at the place other than the site

of action and travels through blood to other
part and cause the change.

iii. They act on a specific organs or tissues

called as target organs.

iv. May stimulate or inhibit the activity of

the target organs.

v. Excess or deficiency of hormone may lead to

serious consequences.
Major Hormones Secreted By Glands
Hypothalamu
s Stimulate pituitary to
secrete the hormone.
i. Releasing
Hormone
Inhibits the secretion of
ii. Inhibiting hormones from
pituitary gland.
Hormone
II. Pituitary Gland
Growth Hormone Controls the overall
development or growth of
the body, muscle, bones
and tissues.

Stimulating the secretion

Gonadotropic of male and female sex
Hormones hormones like
testosterone in male and
progesterone in female.

Stimulating the
Oxytocin
contraction of smooth
muscle during child birth.
III. Pineal Gland
Melotonin Regulates the circadian
rhythm for waking and
sleep cycles.

IV. Thyroid
Gland Thyroxine stimulates
the rate of cellular
Thyroxine oxidation and
metabolism.
V. Para-thyroid gland
Parathyroid Regulates the calcium
Hormone and phosphate level in
the blood.

VI. Thymus
Gland Stimulates the
development of WBC’s
Thymosin
VII. Adrenal gland
Adrenaline Hormone Controls the emotions,
fear, anger, blood
pressure, heart beat
etc.
VIII. Pancreas

Insulin
Lowers glucose level
in blood

Glucagon
Increases the glucose
level in blood
IX. Ovaries
Progesterone and Stimulates the
estrogen ovulation and helps in
developing the
secondary sexual
characters in female.

X. Testes
Testosterone Controls the
secondary sexual
characters in male.
 Disorders of endocrine
gland
Disorders of Pituitary
Dwarfism
Deficiency caused due to deficiency of
secretion of growth hormone.

Gigantism
Caused due to excess secretion of growth
hormone.
 Disorder due to thyroid
gland
Grave disease( Exopthalmic
goitre):
Over secretion of thyroid hormone due to
enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Simple goitre (Endemic goiter):

Caused due to deficiency in secretion of
thyroid hormone or Iodine deficiency.
 Deficiency of Pancreas
Diabetes Mellitus
 Deficiency of insulin causes disease
called diabetes.

 Patient excretes sugar in urine, feels

excessive thirst and also urinates
excessively.