Reservoir Engineering

Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering

Ph.D Firdavs Aliev

Senior researcher
«In-situ Combustion» Lab.

[email protected]
8(953) 491-12-06
 Syllabus
Textbooks:
1)Tarek Ahmed. (2019). Reservoir Engineering Handbook. Elsevier: Gulf
Professional Publishing.
2) Howard B. Bradley (1992). Petroleum Engineering Handbook.
Richardson: SPE Course Plan:
Lecture 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Lecture 2. Material balance equation
Lecture 3. Single-phase gas reservoirs
Lecture 4. Gas-condensate reservoirs
Lecture 5. Undersaturated oil reservoirs
Lecture 6. Saturated oil reservoirs
MIDTERM EXAM (Written)
Lecture 7. Single-phase fluid flow in reservoirs
601-800
9
Lecture 8. Water influx
Lecture 9. The displacement of oil and gas
370 Lecture 10. History matching
13
FINAL EXAM (ORAL or WRITTEN)
 Syllabus

Course timeline: 03 September-05 November

Assessment Criteria:

Midterm Exam – 20% (announced)

Homeworks – 10%

Reports – 20% (2.5 points x 8 week)

Final Exam – 50% (announced)

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Reservoir Engineering is defined as the application of scientific

principles to the drainage problems arising during the development
and production of oil and gas reservoirs.
It has also been defined as the art of developing and producing oil
and gas fluids in such a manner as to obtain a high economic
recovery.

Four major activities:

1) Observations - These include the geological model, the drilling of wells
and the data acquired in each: cores, logs, tests, fluid samples. The most
valuable reservoir engineers are those who see the clearest and the most
and who know what they are looking for.
2) Assumptions - the engineer is usually obliged to make a set of
assumptions concerning the physical state of the “system” for which an
601-800
9
appropriate mathematical description must be sought
3) Calculations - Once a physical condition has been assumed then
calculations are an absolute must and it should be remembered at all times
370
13 that we reservoir engineers receive our salaries to perform calculations
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Technical responsibilities of reservoir engineers:

1) Contributing (with the geologists and petrophysicists) to the
estimation of HC in-situ.
2) Determining the fraction of discovered HC that can be recovered
3) Attaching a time scale to the recovery
4) Ongoing operational activity

Petroleum Reservoirs
A reservoir is that portion of a trap which contains oil and/or gas as a
single hydraulically connected system.
A petroleum reservoir must have three elements: a) source rock for
HC b) porous and permeable rocks c) impermeable seal to trap the
HC.
601-800
9

Two of the more common

370
traps are shown here:
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Accumulation of oil
The hydrocarbons migrate from the source rock to the reservoir rock.
The primary forces causing this are:
• Buoyancy
• Capillarity
• As oil and gas are lighter than the ground water which permeates
the porous rocks below the water table, it is evident that the
upward movement must be restricted in order for accumulations to
exist at depth.

Geological Traps
A Geologic trap limits the upward movement of the hydrocarbons.
• A petroleum reservoir is a combination of one of the elementary
601-800
reservoir traps and one of the structural environment indicators:
9 - Elementary trap indicators are grouped as: convex,
permeability, pinchout, fault or piercement.
370 - Structural environment indicators are grouped as: dome
13
and anticline, salient, terrace or platform, monoclinehomocline
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Gravity Separation
• Due to differences in the specific gravities of the fluids in the
reservoir, natural separation occurs over time.
• The gas will separate from the liquid hydrocarbons and migrate to
the top of the reservoir. The interface between these two phases is
the gas-oil contact.
• The water is typically the heaviest fluid in a hydrocarbon reservoir.
The interface between these two fluids is called the oil-water
contact.
Definition: the upward force acting on an
object placed in a fluid. The buoyancy
force is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced by the object. Any change in the
relative volumes or fluid levels will change
601-800
9 the buoyancy forces.

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Drive Mechanisms

Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure is sufficient to drive

the fluids to the surface (otherwise they have to be pumped).
• As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops according to the
Reservoir Drive Mechanism.
• Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which fluid expands to fill
the space vacated by the produced fluid.

Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:

601-800
9
• Water drive.
• Gas cap drive.
370
13 • Gas solution drive.
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Water Drive - Water moves up to fill the "space" vacated by the oil as it
is produced.

601-800
9 • This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir pressure fairly
constant.
• Produced water increases as the volume of oil in the reservoir
370
13 decreases.
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Gas Cap Drive - Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space vacated by
the produced oil.

601-800
9
• As oil production declines, gas production increases.
• Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.
370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Solution Gas Drive - after some time the oil in the reservoir is below the
bubble point.

601-800
9

• An initial high oil production is followed by a rapid decline.

370
• GOR has a peak corresponding to the higher permeability to gas.
13
• The reservoir pressure shows a fast decline.
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Drives – Recovery
• A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in place.
• A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a greater reduction in
pressure.
• A solution gas drive has a low recovery.
Drives – Problems
• Water Drive: Water can cone
upwards and be produced through
the lower perforations.
• Gas Cap Drive: Gas can cone
downwards and be produced
through the upper perforations.
Pressure is rapidly lost as the gas
expands.
• Gas Solution Drive: Gas production
601-800 can occur in the reservoir, skin
9
damage. Very short-life.

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Reservoir Types based on the Phase Diagrams

1) Dry gas reservoirs

2) Dew-point (condensate)
reservoirs

3) Bubble-point (dissolved gas,

Solution gas drive, expansion
and internal gas) reservoirs

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Rock Properties - Porosity

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Rock Properties - Permeability

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Isothermal Compressibility - the change in volume that a

substance undergoes during a change in pressure while the
temperature is held constant.

601-800 The pore volume compressibility (Cf): change in pore volume per unit of pore
9
volume per unit change in pressure

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Fluid Saturations – the ratio of the volume that a fluid occupies to

the pore volume

• There are two ways of measuring original fluid saturations: direct

(extraction of the reservoir fluids or the leaching of the fluids from
a sample of the reservoir rock) and indirect (relies on the
measurement of logs or some other properties, such as capillary
pressure).
•

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Ideal Gas Law

The simplest equation of state is called ideal gas law, which was
developed by Boyle’s and Charles’s laws:
PV=nRT
Where P: absolute pressure, psia
V: total volume, ft3
n: moles, lb-moles
T: absolute temperature, Rankine
R: gas constant, R=10,73

• Standard conditions: 14.7 psia and 60 °F

• The volume that 1 lb-mole of any gas occupies at standard
601-800
9 conditions is 379.4 SCF

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Specific Gravity

Definition: ratio of the density of a gas at a given temperature and

pressure to the density of air at the same temperature and pressure

• The specific gravity is INDEPENDENT of temperature and pressure,

when the gas obeys the ideal gas law.

• The Mw of air = 28.97.

Hence,

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Real Gas Law

• There are no perfect gases. However, many gases near atmospheric

temperature and pressure approach ideal behavior.

• Molecules of real gases have two tendencies:

1) to fly apart from each other because of their constant kinetic
motion
2) to come together because of electrical attractive forces between
the molecules

• The number, which is a measure of the amount the gas deviates from
perfect behavior, is sometimes called the supercompressibility
factor, usually shortened to the compressibility factor. More
601-800
9
commonly it is called the gas deviation factor, symbol z.

Definition: (z) is the ratio of the volume actually occupied by a gas at a

370
13 given pressure and temperature to the volume it would occupy if it
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Real Gas Law

• Gas deviation factor is mathematically expressed: z = V a / Vi = (Actual

volume of n moles of gas at T and P) / (Ideal volume of n moles at
same T and P)
• Recall ideal gas law equation : PVi = nRT = P(Va / z) = nRT
PVa= znRT
• The omission of the gas deviation factor in gas reservoir calculations
may introduce errors as large as 30%.

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Real

Gas Law

• If the gas deviation factor is not

measured, it may be estimated
from its specific gravity,
developed by Sutton on the
basis of 264 different gas
samples. This method uses a
correlation to estimate
pseudocritical temperature and
pseudocritical pressure values
for a gas with a given specific
gravity.
601-800
9
• Sutton came up with the
following equations over the
range of specific gas gravities
370
13 with which he worked
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Real

Gas Law

• To find out the z factor, after

pseudocritical values,
pseudoreduced temperature
and pseudoreduced pressure
are calculated by dividing
temperature and pressure
values to their pseudocritical
values. Then, the chart of
Standing and Katz can be
applied.
• Wichert and Aziz have
601-800
9
developed a correlation to
account significant content of
CO2 and H2S in the composition
370
13 of gas. This method modifies
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Real Gas Law

• Wichert and Aziz correlation equation is as follows:

• The modified pseudocritical values are given by:

• The authors found and average absolute error of 0.97% over 154 <
P(psia) < 7026 and 40 < T(°F) < 300.
601-800
9
• The correlation is good for concentrations of CO2 < 54.4% (mole%) and
H2S < 73.8% (mole %)
370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Formation Volume Factor and Density

Bg (Gas Volume Factor) – relates the volume of gas in the reservoir to the
volume on the surface (i.e. at standard conditions, psc and Tsc).
Mathematically expressed as Bg= Vactual / Videal(sc).

• Assume a unit gas deviation factor for the standard conditions, the
reservoir volume of one SCF (Vsc= 1) at reservoir pressure p and
temperature T by equation
• PVi = nRT = P(Va / z) = nRT PVa= znRT is ;
where psc = 14.7 psia and Tsc= 60 °F

601-800 The constants are only for 14.7 psia and 60

9
°F
370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Formation Volume Factor and Density

The reservoir gas density can be calculated from the equation of gas law
Call eq. ɣg = Mw / 28.97
• The reservoir gas density (ρg) is a pounds contained in 1 ft3:

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Isothermal Compressibility

Definition: the change in volume with pressure for gases under
isothermal conditions.

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Gas Properties - Viscosity

Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin developed a semiemprical method that give

an accurate estimate of gas viscosity for most natural gases if the z-
factor has been calculated to include the effect of contaminants.

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties-Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, Rso

• The solubility of natural gas in crude oil depends on the pressure,
temperature and the composition of hydrocarbons.
• A crude oil is said to be saturated with gas at any pressure and temperature if
on a slight reduction in pressure some gas is released from solution.
Conversely, if no gas is released from solution, the crude oil is said to be
undersaturated at that pressure.
•

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties-Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, Rso

• When PVT analysis of the reservoir fluids are not available empirical equations
are applied.

• Standing gives a correlation, from which the solution gas-oil ratio (for pressures
less than or equal to bubble point pressure) may be estimated from the
reservoir pressure, temperature, API of oil and the specific gravity of the
produced gas:

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties - Formation Volume Factor

• Formation Volume Factor (Bo or FVF) (bbl/STB) – volume in barrels that

one stock tank barrel occupies in the formation at reservoir temperature and
with the solution gas which can be held in the oil at that pressure.
The thermal expansion of oil:

Two-phase formation volume factor (B t):

Volume in barrels one STB and its initial complement
of dissolved gas occupies at any P and T.

Bt = Bo + Bg (Rsoi - Rso)

Rsoi : initial solution gas-oil ratio

601-800
9 Rso: solution gas-oil ratio at certain P

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties - Formation Volume Factor

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties - Formation Volume Factor

• Standing’s correlation for the oil formation volume factor: for p < pb:

Bo = 0,972 + 0,000147 F1,175

• for p > pb:

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties – Isothermal Compressibility

Villena-Lanzi developed a correlation for black oils, where p<p b:

where, T = °F

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties – Isothermal Compressibility

• Vasquez and Beggs presented a correlation for p > pb:

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Review of Crude Oil Properties – Viscosity

• Egbogah developed a correlation using 394

different oil, which is accurate for «dead oil»
(p < pb):

where, µod = dead oil viscosity, cp T=

°F

Database:

601-800
9
• Beggs and Robinson developed a correlation for «live
oil» based on the dead oil correlation:
µo = A µodB
370 where,
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Crude Oil Properties – Viscosity

• For p > pb Vasquez and Begg’s correlation can be used:

µo = µob (p / pb) m
where,

601-800
9

370
13
 1. Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Review of Crude Oil Properties – Examples

Use of correlations to estimate values (Rso; co; Bo; µo) for liquid properties
at pressures of 2000 and 4000 psia

Given: T = 180F, pb=2500 psia, SGg = 0.8, °API = 40, SGo= 0.85

601-800
9

370
13
Thank you for your
patience!