Research Methodology And IPR

Module-2

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 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection

and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance
to the research purpose with economy in procedure
Or
The research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design
includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing
the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data.

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 Research design into the following parts:
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study
(b) The observational design which relates to the
conditions under which the observations are to be made
(c) The statistical design which concerns with the
question of how many items are to be observed and how
the information and data gathered are to be analyzed
(d) The operational design which deals with the
techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.

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 We can state the important features of a
research design as under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information
relevant to the research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for
gathering and analyzing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies
are done under these two constraints. In brief, research design
must, at least, contain—
(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information;
(c) the population to be studied; and
(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data

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 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is needed because it facilitates the
smooth sailing of the various research operations,
thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.

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 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
A research design appropriate for a particular research
problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:

(i) The means of obtaining information

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any;
(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied
(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied
(v) The availability of time and money for the research
work
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 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH
DESIGN
1.Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take
on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the
concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related
to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable
are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants
to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-
concepts.
3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design
is to minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).

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Continue
4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is
not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed
as research hypothesis.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research: When the purpose of research is to test a research
hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can
be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental
design.
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 Dependent and Independent Variables:
Independent Variable (IV): The thing you are testing or changing.
Here, it’s the amount of exercise students do daily (e.g., 0 hours, 1 hour, or 2 hours).
Dependent Variable (DV): The thing you are measuring.
Here, it’s the students’ grades (e.g., their test scores).
2. Extraneous Variables:
These are other factors that might also affect grades but are not the focus of your
study. Examples:

Sleep (students who sleep more might do better in school).

Nutrition (eating healthy meals might improve focus).
Study habits (some students may spend more time studying).
If you don’t control these extraneous variables, they might confuse your results.

3. Control:
To make sure you are only testing the effect of exercise on grades, you need to control
the other factors (extraneous variables).
How?

Ensure all students in the study get the same amount of sleep.
Give all students similar meals or ask about their diets.
Ensure they have similar study routines.
This way, you’re only testing exercise and its impact on grades.
4. Confounded Relationship:
Imagine one group of students exercises and also eats very healthy, while another group does not exercise and
eats junk food.
If the group that exercises gets better grades, how do you know it’s because of the exercise and not the healthy
eating?
This is a confounded relationship—two things (exercise and eating habits) are mixed, making it hard to tell
which one is causing the change in grades.

5. Research Hypothesis:
You create a research hypothesis like:
"Students who exercise daily will get better grades than students who do not exercise."
This is what you’ll test in your study.

6. Types of Research:
Experimental Research: You split students into two groups:

Group 1 exercises daily for 1 hour.

Group 2 does not exercise at all.
After a few weeks, you compare their grades to see if Group 1 performs better.
Non-Experimental Research: You don’t ask students to change their routines. Instead, you observe how much
they naturally exercise and compare it to their grades.
This approach is less controlled but still provides insights.

Simple Example in Action:

You collect data from 100 students.
Half of them exercise daily, and half do not.
You also ask about their sleep, diet, and study habits to control these factors.
After a semester, you compare their grades and find that students who exercise daily get higher grades.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Research design in case of exploratory research
studies
• Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies
• Research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles

of experimental designs:

(1) The Principle of Replication.

(2) The Principle of Randomization.
(3) The Principle of Local Control.

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 Principle of Replication
• Replication means repeating an experiment multiple times or applying treatments
to many units instead of just one. This reduces the influence of random errors or
unexpected variations, making the results more reliable.
Example:
Suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose, we may
divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in
the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on
that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we
first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the
other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the two
varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be
more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle
of replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better
results.

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 Principle of Randomization
• Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an
experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In
other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the
experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors
can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”
For instance,
If we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and
the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil
fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this
is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the
variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and
protect ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors (soil fertility
differences in the given case). As such, through the application of the principle
of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.
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 Principle of Local Control
Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under
it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately
over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the
variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-
way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three
components attributed to treatments (varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous
factor (soil fertility in our case) and experimental error.

In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into
several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into
parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to
these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several homogenous parts is known as
‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed,
so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a
two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can
eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error
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 Important Experimental Designs
Important experiment designs are as follows:

(a) Informal experimental designs:

(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.

(b) Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs BMSIT, CSE-2024-25
 Conclusion for Research Design

There are several research design and the researcher must decide
in advance of collection and analysis of data as to which design
would prove to be more appropriate for his research project.
He/she must give due weight to various points such as the type of
universe and its nature, the objective of his/her study, the
resource list or the sampling frame, desired standard of accuracy
and the like when taking a decision in respect of the design for
his research project.

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 Design of Sampling Survey.
Introduction to Sampling Surveys:
Sampling surveys are a key tool in research, where a subset of the population (a sample)
is studied to make inferences about the entire population.

Why Sampling?: It’s often impractical or impossible to study every member of a

population due to constraints like time, cost, and accessibility. Sampling offers a
manageable way to gather data while maintaining accuracy.

Importance of Sampling Design:

A well-designed sampling survey ensures that the results are representative of the whole
population.
The effectiveness of the research depends on how well the sample represents the larger
population and how accurately data is collected.
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 Design of Sampling Survey.
Components of Sampling Survey:
• Sample Design: The framework or strategy used to select the sample from the
population. Includes decisions like the size of the sample, sampling method, and
selection criteria.
• Data Collection: The process of gathering information from the sample using
techniques such as surveys, interviews, or observations.
• Error Management: Identifying and controlling potential sources of error, both
sampling and non-sampling errors, to enhance the reliability of the results.

Why It Matters:
A well-structured sampling design ensures that research findings can be generalized to
the larger population with confidence, which is critical in decision-making processes in
various fields like business, healthcare, and social sciences.
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 Design of Sampling Survey.
Objective of Sample Design:
•To provide accurate, reliable data about the population.
•Define clear objectives to guide the sampling process.
•Helps determine the methodology and scope of the study.

Size of the Sample:

What is Sample Size?:
• The sample size refers to the number of individuals or units selected from the
population to participate in the study.
• The size of the sample has a direct impact on the accuracy and reliability of the
results. A larger sample tends to provide more accurate estimates of the population
parameters.

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 Design of Sampling Survey.
Importance of Determining the Correct Sample Size:
• Accuracy of Results: A properly calculated sample size minimizes sampling errors
and ensures the results can be generalized to the entire population.
• Feasibility and Cost: While larger samples provide more precise results, they are
also more costly and time-consuming. The goal is to find a balance between accuracy
and resource constraints.

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 Design of Sampling Survey.
Factors Influencing Sample Size:
1. Population Size: The larger the population, the larger the sample needs to be to
maintain the same level of accuracy.
2. Variance in the Population: Higher variability within the population requires a
larger sample size to capture the range of responses.
3. Confidence Level: Researchers typically use a 95% or 99% confidence level, which
means that if the study were repeated multiple times, the results would fall within
the same range 95% or 99% of the time. Higher confidence levels require larger
samples.
4. Margin of Error: Also known as the "confidence interval," it indicates the range
within which the true population parameter is expected to fall. A smaller margin of
error requires a larger sample size.
5. Type of Study: Studies focusing on qualitative research may use smaller sample
sizes, while quantitative studies often require larger samples for statistical
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significance.
 Design of Sampling Survey.
Consequences of an Incorrect Sample Size:
• Too Small: Results may be unreliable, leading to incorrect conclusions due to high
variability and increased sampling error.
• Too Large: Wastes resources without a proportional increase in the accuracy of the
results.

Methods to Calculate Sample Size:

Various statistical formulas and software tools can help calculate the appropriate sample
size based on the above factors. A common approach is the use of standard sample size
formulas for different types of studies (e.g., surveys, experiments).

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Parameter of
Definition:
Interest.
A parameter of interest refers to the specific characteristic or metric of the population
that the researcher aims to estimate or study, such as the population mean, proportion, or
variance.

Why It's Important:

The parameter of interest determines the focus of the research and guides the sampling
process. For example, in a survey on income levels, the parameter of interest might be
the average income (mean) of the population.

Role in Sample Design:

The choice of the parameter influences the choice of the sampling technique and size.
For example, estimating a mean may require different sampling techniques than
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estimating a proportion.
 Design of Sampling Survey - Parameter of Interest.
Examples of Parameters:
Mean (e.g., average age or income).
Proportion (e.g., percentage of people using a product).
Standard deviation or variance (e.g., variation in test scores).

Goal:
The goal is to accurately estimate this parameter for the population using data from the
sample.

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 Selection of
Design of Sampling Survey -
Proper Sample Design.

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 Selection of
Design of Sampling Survey -
Proper
What is Sample Design?:
Sample Design.
Sample design refers to the method used to select units from the population for study. It
determines how the sample will be chosen and how data will be collected from the
sample.

Types of Sample Designs:

•Probability Sampling:
•Every element of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.
•Examples:
•Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
•Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and samples
are taken from each subgroup to ensure representation.
Advantages: Minimizes bias and allows for generalization of results to the
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population.
 Design of Sampling Survey - Selection of Proper Sample
Design.
•Non-Probability Sampling:
•Not all elements of the population have a chance of being included.
•Examples:
Convenience Sampling: Choosing individuals who are easiest to reach.
Judgment Sampling: The researcher selects individuals based on subjective
judgment.
Advantages: Easier and quicker to implement, often used in exploratory research.
Limitations: Results may not be generalizable to the entire population.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Selection of Proper Sample
Design.
Criteria for Selecting Proper Sample Design:
• Nature of Research: Quantitative studies often require probability sampling for
statistical validity, while qualitative studies may use non-probability methods for more
in-depth exploration.
• Cost and Time: Probability sampling methods can be more time-consuming and
expensive than non-probability methods.
• Accuracy Needed: If high accuracy and generalization are critical, probability
sampling is preferred.

Goal of Sample Design:

The goal is to select a sample that best represents the population while balancing
practical constraints such as time, cost, and effort.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Sampling Errors.
What are Sampling Errors?:
• Sampling error occurs when the sample selected does not perfectly represent the
population, leading to differences between the sample statistic and the actual
population parameter.
• These errors arise naturally due to the use of a subset of the population rather than
studying the entire population.
Types of Sampling Errors:
•Random Sampling Error:
• Occurs due to chance variations when a sample is drawn.
• Even with proper random sampling methods, there can still be differences between the
sample and population, simply because not every individual is included.
• This error decreases as the sample size increases.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Sampling Errors.
•Systematic Sampling Error:
• Caused by flaws in the sampling process.
• For example, if a sample is drawn from a biased subset of the population (e.g.,
sampling only urban areas for a nationwide study), the results will not reflect the true
population.
• This error does not decrease with an increase in sample size and must be addressed by
improving the sampling method.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Sampling Errors.
Impact of Sampling Errors:
Sampling errors affect the accuracy and reliability of research findings.

•Mitigating Sampling Errors:

• Increasing the sample size helps reduce random sampling error.
• Using proper, unbiased sampling techniques (such as probability sampling) helps
reduce systematic sampling error.

•Importance of Recognizing Sampling Errors:

• Researchers must understand the potential for error and plan to minimize it. Reporting
on these errors helps assess the reliability of the results and whether they can be
generalized to the broader population.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Non-Sampling
Errors
• What are Non-Sampling Errors?:
.
• Non-sampling errors occur not because of how the sample was selected but due to
problems in the data collection process, data processing, or response errors.
• These errors can occur even in a census where the entire population is surveyed.

• Types of Non-Sampling Errors:

Response Errors:
• Occurs when respondents provide incorrect or incomplete information.
• Causes: Misunderstanding questions, unwillingness to provide honest answers, or
errors in recording responses.
• Can be reduced by clear questionnaire design and proper interviewer training.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Non-Sampling Errors.
Non-Response Errors:
• Occurs when a significant portion of the sampled population fails to respond.
• This can result in biased findings if the characteristics of non-respondents differ from
those who do respond.
• Strategies to reduce non-response: Follow-up with non-respondents, offering
incentives, or providing multiple modes of participation.
Measurement Errors:
• Arise due to flaws in the measurement instrument, such as poorly designed surveys or
faulty data collection tools.
• Can be reduced by using standardized instruments and piloting the survey before full
implementation.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Non-Sampling Errors.
Processing Errors:
• These occur during data handling, such as errors in data entry, coding, or analysis.
• Mitigated by thorough data validation checks and using automated data entry systems
where possible.

Impact of Non-Sampling Errors:

• These errors can lead to biased or inaccurate results and are often more difficult to
detect than sampling errors.

Strategies to Reduce Non-Sampling Errors:

• Pretesting questionnaires and procedures to identify potential issues.
• Training data collectors and interviewers thoroughly.
• Implementing quality control measures during data entry and analysis.
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 Design of Sampling Survey - Data
Collection:
Experiments
Experiments:
and Surveys .
• In an experiment, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables and
observe their effect on dependent variables.
• Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships by controlling all other factors
that might influence the outcome.
• Process:
1 Define a hypothesis.
2 Manipulate a variable (e.g., treatment vs. control group).
3 Measure the effect on the outcome variable.
• Advantages: High internal validity due to control over variables; allows researchers to
make strong inferences about causality.
• Disadvantages: Artificial settings may not represent real-world situations, limiting
external validity (generalizability).
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 Design of Sampling Survey - Data Collection:
Experiments and Surveys.
Surveys:
Surveys collect information by asking respondents questions about their characteristics,
behaviors, attitudes, or opinions.
• Types of Surveys:
1 Cross-sectional: Collects data at a single point in time.
2 Longitudinal: Collects data from the same subjects over time.
• Modes of Conducting Surveys:
1 Face-to-Face: In-person interviews, which offer deeper insights but are time-
consuming and expensive.
2 Telephone/Online: Quicker and more cost-effective but may face low response
rates.
3 Mail: Traditional, but slow and often suffers from non-response issues.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Data Collection:
Experiments and Surveys.
Advantages:
• Can cover large populations quickly.
• Flexible in terms of content and format.
• Cost-effective, especially for online or telephone surveys.

Disadvantages:
• Prone to biases like non-response bias (people who don't participate may differ
significantly from those who do).
• The accuracy of the data depends on the quality of the survey design, especially the
wording of questions.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Data Collection:
Experiments and Surveys.
Comparison:
• Experiments provide higher control over variables, allowing researchers to draw
causal relationships, but they may lack real-world applicability.
• Surveys are better suited for gathering data from larger populations and for
understanding opinions, behaviors, or trends but may be limited in their ability to
determine causality.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of
Primary Data: Observation
What is the Observation Method?:
Method .
• Involves directly watching and recording behaviors, actions, or events as they occur in
their natural environment.
• It is used when the researcher wants to gather real-time, unbiased data without relying
on the responses of subjects.

Types of Observation:
•Structured Observation:
• Predetermined categories and criteria are used to observe and record behaviors.
• More formal, and often used when specific behaviors or outcomes need to be tracked.
• Example: Counting how many times a product is picked up by customers in a store.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of Primary Data:
Observation Method.
•Unstructured Observation:
• More open-ended, without predetermined categories.
• The observer records everything relevant without a strict focus, allowing for a broader
understanding.
• Example: Observing general customer behavior in a shopping mall to identify trends.

•Participant Observation:
• The observer becomes actively involved in the situation they are studying.
• Useful when the behavior of the group being studied changes when outsiders are
present.
• Example: A researcher joins a community group to observe their interaction patterns
from within.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of Primary Data:
Observation Method.
•Non-Participant Observation:
• The observer remains detached and does not interact with the subjects.
• Minimizes the influence of the observer on the behavior of those being observed.
• Example: Watching shoppers in a store from a distance without interacting with them.

•Advantages of the Observation Method:

• Real-time Data: Allows for the collection of live, authentic behavior, avoiding biases
introduced by self-report methods (e.g., surveys).
• Contextual Information: Provides insights into the setting, environment, and context
in which behaviors occur, which might be missed through other methods.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of Primary Data:
Observation Method.
•Disadvantages:
• Observer Bias: The observer's subjectivity can affect how behaviors are interpreted or
recorded.
• Time-Consuming: Observation, especially unstructured, can take a long time and may
require repeated visits.
• Limited Scope: Since it captures specific moments, it may not provide enough data for
generalization, especially in large populations.

•Applications:
• Widely used in fields like anthropology, marketing research (e.g., customer behavior
studies), education (e.g., classroom observation), and social sciences to gain deeper
insight into behavior and social interactions.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of
Secondary
•What is Secondary Data?:
Data .
• Secondary data refers to data that has already been collected and published by other
researchers, organizations, or institutions. It is data that wasn’t specifically collected
for the current study but is instead repurposed for new analysis or insights.
•Sources of Secondary Data:
• Government Publications: Census data, economic surveys, statistical yearbooks,
and other government reports.
• Research Studies: Published journal articles, dissertations, and reports from previous
research.
• Business and Market Reports: Industry reports, company publications, financial
data.
• Media and Online Databases: News articles, reports from websites, academic
databases (e.g., JSTOR, PubMed).
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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of Secondary
Data.
•Advantages of Secondary Data:
• Time-Saving: Since the data is already available, it saves time that would otherwise
be spent on primary data collection.
• Cost-Effective: Using existing data eliminates the need for the expensive processes of
collecting new data.
• Larger Datasets: Often, secondary data can provide access to larger datasets than a
researcher could gather independently, enabling broader analysis.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of Secondary
Data.
•Key Considerations When Using Secondary Data:
• Source Credibility: Ensure that the data is from a reputable, reliable source (e.g.,
official government reports, peer-reviewed academic journals).
• Data Fit: Evaluate whether the data is relevant to your research question and if it
covers the necessary time frame, geographic region, or population.
• Data Completeness: Check if the dataset provides comprehensive coverage of the
variables needed for analysis.
•Applications:
• Secondary data is widely used in fields like economics, marketing, education, and
healthcare. For example, a researcher might analyze census data to study population
trends or use financial data from company reports to assess market performance.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Collection of Secondary
Data.
•Disadvantages of Secondary Data:
• Relevance: The data may not be entirely aligned with the specific needs of the current
research project. The variables, definitions, or scope might differ from what’s
required.
• Outdated Data: Secondary data might not be up-to-date, especially in rapidly
changing fields like technology, economics, or public opinion.
• Accuracy and Reliability: There may be concerns about how the data was collected,
processed, and reported. Researchers must assess whether the source is credible and
whether the data is accurate.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Selection of
Appropriate Method for Data
Collection.
•Importance of Choosing the Right Data Collection Method:
• Selecting the most suitable method for data collection is crucial to ensure that the data
gathered is accurate, reliable, and relevant to the research objectives. The chosen
method should align with the nature of the research problem and the resources
available.
•Key Factors in Selecting Data Collection Methods:
•Nature of Research:
• Quantitative Research: Methods like surveys, experiments, or secondary data
analysis are typically used to gather numerical data that can be statistically analyzed.
• Qualitative Research: Interviews, focus groups, or observations are more suited for
exploratory studies where in-depth understanding of behaviors, opinions, or
experiences is needed.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Selection of Appropriate
Method for Data Collection.
•Objectives of the Study:
• If the goal is to understand cause-and-effect relationships, experiments or controlled
studies might be the best approach.
• If the goal is to gather descriptive data on opinions, behaviors, or trends across a large
population, surveys or questionnaires are effective.

•Time and Resource Constraints:

• Surveys and secondary data are more time- and cost-efficient for large-scale data
collection.
• Experiments and observations may be more resource-intensive but offer deeper
insights into specific variables or behaviors.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Selection of Appropriate
Method for Data Collection.
•Accuracy Required:
• Research requiring high accuracy, like scientific experiments or clinical trials,
benefits from controlled environments and well-designed experiments.
• For less precise needs, such as opinion polling or exploratory research, methods like
online surveys or interviews may suffice.

•Sample Size and Population:

• For large populations, surveys allow for broad data collection with minimal resources.
• For smaller, more specific groups, interviews or case studies provide deeper insight,
even with a smaller sample size.

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 Design of Sampling Survey - Selection of Appropriate
Method for Data Collection.
•Method Selection Examples:
• Surveys: Used when you need to gather information from a large number of
respondents about their behaviors, attitudes, or preferences.
• Experiments: Ideal when testing hypotheses in controlled environments to establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
• Interviews: Useful for qualitative research that seeks detailed, personal insights from
individuals.
• Observations: Best suited for studying behavior in natural settings where participants
may not be able to accurately report their actions.

Choosing the right data collection method depends on the balance between research
goals, accuracy, available time, and resources, ensuring that the method aligns with the
study's objectives and limitations.
BMSIT, CSE-2024-25