Advanced Surveying

Equipments
 Advanced Surveying Equipments –
• Following are the various modern surveying instruments/equipments –
1. Electronic Digital Theodolite
2. Electronic distance measuring instrument (EDM)
3. Total Station
4. One Second Micro Optic Theodolite
5. Digital Level
6. Remote Sensing
7. GPS
8. Aerial Camera
 Electronic Distance Meter (EDM) –
• Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between
two points using electromagnetic waves.
• In this method instruments are used to measure distance that rely on propagation, reflection
and reception of electromagnetic waves like radio, visible light or infrared waves.
• EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and
can be used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometres.
• Direct measurement of distance using tape is difficult when the terrains is rough or site is
congested.
• Electronic distance measuring instruments have been recently which give very high
accuracy and quick work in distance measurement.
 Types of Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument –
• Classification based on the type of carrier wave ,
1. Microwave instruments
2. Infrared wave instruments
3. Light wave instruments

• Classification based on the Range,

1. Long Range
2. Medium Range
3. Short Range
1. Microwave instruments
• These instruments make use of
microwaves. And named as Tellurometers.
• Frequency range of 3 to 30 GHz (1GHz =
109 Hz).
• They are light and highly portable.
• Tellurometers can be used in day as well
as in night.
• The range of these instruments is up to
100 km.
2. Infrared wave instruments
• In this instrument amplitude modulated infrared waves are used.
• Prism reflectors are used at the end of line to be measured.
• Frequency used is 3 x 1014 Hz.
• These instruments are light and economical and can be mounted on theodolite. With
these instruments accuracy achieved is ± 10 mm.
• The range of these instruments is up to 5 km. The instruments available is in trade name
of Wild Distomat.
3. Light wave instruments
• These instruments rely on propagation of
modulated light waves.
• This type of instrument was first developed in
Sweden and was named as Geodimeter.
• Frequency used is 5 x 1014 Hz.
• The range of these instrument is upto 25km.
• Accuracy of these instruments varies from 0.5
mm to 5 mm/km distance.
1. Long Range
• long range equipment for ranges up to 100 km.

2. Medium Range
• medium range equipment for ranges up to 25 km.

3. Short Range
• short range equipment for ranges up to 5 km.
 Principle of EDM
• Let the distance between P and Q be ‘D’ which is to be measured.
• A wave is transmitted from the transmitter at station ‘P’ with certain phase angle.
• There is a reflector at the other end ‘Q’, reflector consists of prism.
• The wave strikes on reflector at Q and then gets reflected from Q.
• It is received back at the transmitter end at ‘P’ with different phase angle.
• For finding the distance, the phase difference between transmitted and received signal
is measured and converted into distance.
 Components of EDM
1. Carrier Signal – Three very distinct types of frequencies are used giving rise to three
groups of instruments.
a. Long radio waves of the hundreds of meters
b. Micro radio waves of the order of a few centimeters
c. Wavelength near the visible spectrum of the order of micrometers

2. Modulator and modulation signals – Modulation is defined as the process of varying the
amplitude (amplitude modulation), frequency (frequency modulation), phase (phase
modulation) or the polarization (polarization modulation) of a carrier wave in accordance with
other signals.

3. Signal transmitter and receiver – For long waves the most efficient radiator is a straight
vertical wire of effective length λ /4 operating as one half of a dipole. In case of microwave,
the signals can be radiated by dipoles of the appropriate dimensions.
4. Beam splitter – It divides the light emitted from the diode into two signals: an external
measurement beam and an internal reference beam. By means of telescope mounted on EDMI,
the external beam is targeted to a retro-reflector.

5. Reflector – Reflectors are required to return the signal to the point of comparison (at the
master station) and have different requirements for different types of EDM’s.

6. Filter – The internal beam passes through a variable-density filter and is reduced in intensity
to a level equal to that of the returned external signal which enables a more accurate
measurement. Both internal and external signals pass through an interference filter, which
eliminates undesirable energy.

7. Amplifier – These filtered signals are converted to electrical energy while maintaining the
phase-difference. These signal are weak and are amplified by an amplifier.
8. Phase discriminator – Phase discrimination is carried out by this component. A phase
meter converts the phase difference into direct current with magnitude proportional to the
differential phase which is subsequently displayed as the distance measured.

9. Display unit – The display unit provides results of range measurement on LCD panel.
 Procedure of measuring distance using EDM.
1. Let distance AB is to be measured.
2. Set EDM at station A. Touch ON/OFF switch. Display panel will give reading 0.0.
3. Hold the reflector at B.
4. Telescope of EDM sighted towards B with cross hair at center of reflector.
5. Press Range or Enter switch and in few seconds, distance will be displayed.
6. Distances displayed will be horizontal distance and sloping distance between A
and B, also elevation difference between A and B.
 Uses of EDM
1. For measurement of horizontal distance.
2. For measurement of vertical distance.
3. For measurement of sloping distance.
4. It is useful in topographical survey.
5. Measurement of distances in difficult work sites such as construction of gravity dams.
6. Fixing alignment of railway / highway / canal.
7. Measurement of distance of remote point where chain or tape cannot be used.
8. Cross verification of already measured distance by chain / tape.
 Electronic Digital Theodolite –
• An electronic digital theodolite resembles a conventional optical theodolite in size and
shape but it works with electronic speed and efficiency.
• Digital theodolites are the precise type of theodolite, which has least count of 1" (one
second).
• The horizontal angles or vertical angles are shown directly on the display panel of the
instrument.
• For operation of display, chargeable battery is provided to the instrument for giving the
power supply.
• A separate keyboard is provided to facilitate the different operations of theodolite.
 Components of Electronic Digital Theodolite –

1. Telescope – It consists of eyepiece and diaphragm at one end and objective at the
other end. The telescope is mounted on a spindle. The telescope has a focusing screw
by which any object can be bisected.

2. Clamp screws –
i. Horizontal clamp – This clamp is used to bring the motion of telescope exactly
in the horizontal plane. There is one more screw called as horizontal fine
motion screw by which slow motion of telescope can be obtained.
ii. Vertical clamp – This clamp is used to stop the motion of telescope in the vertical
plane. There is additional provision of one more screw called as vertical fine
motion screw by which the slow motion of telescope can be obtained.
3. Leveling head – It consists of two parallel plates. One is called as tribrach and other is called
as base plate. Tribrach has three leveling screws. By operating the levelling screws, the
theodolites can be levelled. The theodolite can be mounted on tripod to head by operating a
clamp screw.
4. Circular level – It is located on the top of tribrach.

5. Plate level – It consists of plate bubble, which keeps the instrument to horizontal axis.
6. Optical plummet – The proper centering work of theodolite is precisely done over the station
point by a small telescope called as optical plummet.
7. Display window – Reading of horizontal angle and vertical angle is displayed on Display
window.
8. Tripod – Theodolite is mounted and fixed on the tripod for each set up. Tripod has adjustable
legs, theodolite can be roughly levelled with the adjusting the legs of tripod.
 Features of Electronic Digital Theodolite –
1. Angle least count can be 1" .
2. Digital readouts eliminate the personal error associated with reading and interpolation of
scale and micrometer settings.
3. Display window/unit for horizontal and vertical angles available at either one or both ends.
4. Built in illumination for night operations.
5. Some digital theodolites have modular arrangement where they can be upgraded to be a total
station or have an EDMI attached for distance measurements.
6. Vertical circles can be set to zero for horizon or zenith along with the status of battery shown
in the display window.
6. Rechargeable Ni-Cd battery with auto power cut-off.
7. Typical specifications for digital theodolites are generally given as follows:
a. Magnification: 26X to 30X
b. Field of view (FOV) 1.50.
c. Shortest viewing distance 1.0 m
d. Angle readouts, direct 5" to 20"
e. Level sensitivity: plate level vial 40"/2 mm, circular level vial 10"/2 mm
 Procedure of Horizontal angle measurement–
1. Taking out digital theodolite from box and fix it on tripod over required station.
2. Approximate levelling by leg adjustment and centering by judgment.
3. Levelling the digital theodolite using foot screws by usual method i.e. plate level parallel to pair of
foot screws and perpendicular position.
4. Focusing of diaphragm and object using eyepiece and focusing screws.
5. Switch on the digital theodolite.
6. Select the left or right direction mode by press button L/R.
7. Direct the telescope towards initial object, bisect it, clamp the theodolite using horizontal clamp
screw, make accurate bisection by using slow motion screw.
8. Press 0 set button for zero reading.
9. Unclamp the clamp screw and bisect the final object, clamp it by clamping the clamp screw.
 Procedure of Vertical angle measurement–
1. Taking out digital theodolite from box and fix it on tripod over required station.
2. Accurate centering and approximate leveling by leg adjustment is done.
3. Levelling the digital theodolite using foot screws by usual method i.e. plate level parallel to
pair of foot screw and perpendicular position
4. Focusing of eyepiece and object glass is done using eyepiece and focusing screws.
5. Switch on the digital theodolite.
6. Direct the telescope toward the object of which angle is to be measured say A, bisect it.
7. Clamp the instrument, accurate bisection is done by slow motion screw.
8. Press hold button, LCD gives required vertical angle from zenith point or horizontal plane as
per setting of the instrument.
 Uses of Digital Theodolite –
1. To measure horizontal angle very precisely up to one second.
2. To measure vertical angle accurately up to one second.
3. For long road and railway bridges, alignment and c/c distance of piers can be fixed
4. To take reduced levels of ridge and valley lines accurately.
5. Triangulation work can be completed with highest precision.
6. To set right angle with very high accuracy, say, for building layout.
7. Mining and Tunnelling.
8. Tacheometric surveys.
 Total Station –
• An electronic total station means an E.D.M. and a digital theodolite built as one unit.
• The microprocessor in TS can perform various mathematical operations such as averaging,
multiple angle and distance measurements, horizontal and vertical distances, X, Y, Z
coordinates, distance between observed points and corrections for atmospheric and instrumental
corrections.
• A microprocessor in the instrument take care of readings and necessary computations.
• The data is easily transferred to the computer where it can be used to generate a map.
 Components of Total Station –
1. Handle: To carry the Instrument physically.
2. Bluetooth antenna: To communicate via Bluetooth, wireless technology.
3. External interface hatch: To connect to external devices.
4. Instrument height mark: To measure height of Instrument.
5. Luminance sensor: Adjusts the brightness of screen automatically.
6. Guide light: To carry out setting out measurement effectively.
7. Objective lens: to sight the object.
8. Laser pointer function: To sight a target in dark location.
9. Vertical clamp screw : to bring the motion of telescope exactly in the vertical plane
10. Vertical fine motion screw - slow motion of telescope in vertical direction can be
obtained.
11. Trigger key: To carry out operation indicated by the soft key in bold type on the screen.
12. Horizontal clamp screw: to bring the motion of telescope exactly in the horizontal plane.
13. Horizontal fine motion screw: slow motion of telescope in horizontal direction can be
obtained.
14. Tribrach clamp: clamp the upper part of the instrument with lower part.
15. Telescope eyepiece screw: to focus the image of object.
16. Sighting collimator: To aim in the direction of measurement point.
17. Instrument centre mark : to mark the centre of instrument.
18. Display: shows the readings and activities of the instrument such as Horizontal and
vertical distance, Horizontal and vertical angles, Key elevations and coordinates.
 Applications of Total Station –
1. To measure horizontal, vertical and sloping distance.
2. To measure horizontal and vertical angles.
3. To measure the level difference between different points.
4. To carry out contouring.
5. To prepare the map and drawings using software.
6. To prepare layout of building.
7. To measure area and volume.
 Temporary Adjustments/Setting up of Total Station –
1. Mount the battery in the instrument before performing this operation because the instrument will tilt
slightly if the battery is mounted after levelling.
2. Set-up the tripod first: extend the extension legs to suitable lengths and tighten the screws on the
midsections. Set the tripod so that the head is positioned over the surveying point. Make sure the tripod
shoes are firmly fixed in the ground. Step on the tripod to make sure if it is well stationed on the ground.
3. Mount the instrument on the tripod head. Supporting it with one hand, tighten the centering screw on
the bottom of the unit to make sure it is secured to the tripod.
4. Move the tripod legs to centre the circular level. The instrument is now roughly levelled-up. Centre the
bubble in the circular level.
5. Adjust three foot screws of the tribrach to centre the bubble of spirit level.
6. Focusing of eyepiece and Object glass.
7. Check the plate level from time to time during measurement.
 Sources of Errors in Total Station –
1. Horizontal Collimation or Line of Sight Error –
• Horizontal collimation or line of sight error is when the line of sight is not perpendicular to the tilting
axis of the instrument. This is an axial error.
• Line of sight error effects the horizontal angle readings. The error can be overcome or eliminated by
observing on two faces.
• If the deviation of line of sight from actual line of sight exceeds more than a desired value, the instrument
must be send to service centre or manufacturer for manual calibration.

2. Tilting Axis Error or Tilt Error –

• Tilting axis or tilt error is the error when the axis to the total station is not perpendicular to the vertical axis
or plumb line. The error effect on horizontal readings when the instrument is tilted (steep sightings) but have
no effect on sightings taken when the instrument is horizontal.
• Like horizontal collimation error the tilting error can be eliminated by two face measurement.
3. Vertical Collimation Error or Vertical Index Error –
• If the horizontal base line of angle from 0° to 180° in the vertical circle does not coincide with the
vertical axis of instrument.
• This error is present in all vertical circle readings and like the horizontal collimation error, it is
eliminated by taking FL and FR readings.

4. Compensator Index Error –

• This error is caused by not leveling the total station correctly and carefully. This error cannot be
eliminated by taking two face (face left and face right) readings unlike the horizontal collimation error.
• If the instrument is fitted with a compensator it will measure residual tilts of the instrument and will
apply corrections to the horizontal and vertical angles.
• Also known as zero point errors.
• If exceeds limit, get adjusted through manufacturer.
5. Calibration of Total Stations –
• To maintain the high level of accuracy offered by modern total stations, there is now much more
emphasis on monitoring instrumental errors, and with this in mind, some construction sites require all
instruments to be checked on a regular basis using procedures outlined in the quality manuals.
• Some instrumental errors are eliminated by observing on two faces of the total station and averaging,
but because one face measurements are the preferred method on site, it is important to determine the
magnitude of instrumental errors and correct for them.
• Calibration should be done before deployment of instruments for field observation,

i. for the first time iv. Following big changes in temperature

ii. after long storage v. Regularly for precision work.
iii. After rough or long transportation
 Procedure of Horizontal angle measurement –
1. To measure horizontal angle ABC with an ETS, set up instrument at station B and perform
adjustments.
2. Switch on the machine and select a measurement screen /mode which displays the horizontal angle.
3. Bisect station A, first approximately by looking against optical collimator and then exactly by looking
through telescope and by making use of tangent screws. Set horizontal angle to 00 by pressing the
0SET key.
4. Bisect station C in the same way as like that for station A and read the reading in display against the
horizontal angle.
5. Record this horizontal angle reading manually on your record book.
6. If required repeat the steps 3 to 5 by changing face to right to obtain one more set of reading. This is
highly essential, especially when A, B and C are different elevation, to avoid error due to imperfect
permanent adjustments.
 Procedure of Vertical angle measurement –
1. The vertical angle is usually measured as a zenith angle (0° is vertically up, 90° is horizontal, 180°
Vertically down)
2. To measure from station O, a vertical angle to any object say E above or D below the horizontal line of
sight, set up instrument at station O and perform temporary adjustments.
3. Keep face left switch on the machine and select a measurement screen / mode which displays the vertical
angle.
4. Elevate or depress the telescope as required, bisect the object station E or D first approximately by looking
against optical collimator and then exactly by looking through telescope and by making use of tangent
screws. Read the reading in display against the vertical angle.
5. Record this vertical angle reading manually on your record book.
6. If required repeat the step 3 and 4 by changing face to right to obtain one more set of reading.
7. The telescope will be pointing downward for zenith angles greater than 90° and upward for angles less than
90°
 Procedure of Distance measurement –
1. To measure sloping distance between two points say A and B, set up ETS at station A and perform
temporary adjustments.
2. Switch on the machine and select the measuring screen / mode ready to show the sloping distance of
reflector station from an instrument station.
3. Hold vertically the prism pole at station B, so that face of the prism is directed towards the ETS at
station A. Bisect first approximately against optical collimator and then exactly by looking through
telescope and by making use of tangent screws the centre of prism on prism pole at station B.
4. Press the button (DIST or MEAS) exclusively created for carrying out distance measurement process.
Within few seconds machine will display the results.
5. Read the value against sloping distance. Record this sloping distance reading manually on your
record book.
6. Total station also measures horizontal and vertical distance between two stations.
HD = SD Sin ZA
VD = SD Cos ZA