SYSTEMATICS BASED ON
EVOLUTIONARY
RELATIONSHIPS:
TREE OF LIFE AND
SYSTEMATICS
HOMOLOG Refers to the similarity in structures or genes
between different species that results from
shared ancestry. These similarities exist
Y regardless of the structures' current functions.
MOLECULAR
CLOCK
A molecular clock is a method
used to estimate how long ago
different species diverged from
each other. It measures the
rate at which an organism's
genes (DNA or protein
sequences) change over time.
By comparing the genetic
differences between species
and calibrating the rate of
change with fossil records,
scientists can create
phylogenetic trees that show
how species have evolved.
PHYLOGE
NY
Phylogeny is the study of
the evolutionary history
and relationships among
species or groups of
species. It aims to
understand how different
organisms are related
and how they have
evolved over time from
common ancestors.
SYSTEMATICS
Systematics is the study of the diversification
of living things, both past and present, and the
relationships among them through time. It is a
branch of biological science that studies the
characteristics of species and how they
are related to other species over time. It
involves naming and classifying organisms
(taxonomy) and figuring out their
evolutionary relationships (phylogeny).
LINES OF EVIDENCE FOR
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
1. Fossil evidence
2. Homologies
3. Biogeography
4. Molecular clocks help track evolutionary
time
FOSSIL
Fossil evidence provides a record of
the past and documents the
evolution of life over millions of
years. Fossils are the preserved
remains or traces of organisms
from long ago. They form when
organisms are buried in sediment,
protecting body parts, particularly
hard ones like bones and shells,
from predators and weathering.
Over time, these remains can
become petrified and preserved
within rocks.
Fossil evidence is a key line
of evidence supporting the
theory of evolution. Fossils,
which are the preserved
remains or traces of
organisms from the remote
past, provide direct evidence
of ancestral forms and
demonstrate change in the
features of living organisms
over time.
FOSSILS AS A
RECORD OF THE
PAST
Fossils provide snapshots
of the past, illustrating a
panorama of evolutionary
change over millions of
years. They show that
organisms from the past
are not the same as those
found today and reveal a
progression of evolution.
THE FOSSIL
RECORD
The totality of fossils,
both discovered and
undiscovered, is referred
to as the fossil record.
Although the fossil record
is incomplete, it clearly
shows that life is very old
and has changed through
evolution
LAW OF FOSSIL
SUCCESSION
Fossils can be dated by determining
the age of the rock layer in which
they are found. The law of fossil
succession indicates that different
kinds of organisms are found in
rocks of particular ages in a
consistent order, suggesting that
newer species likely evolved from
ancestral species.
TRANSITION Transitional fossils demonstrate
intermediary forms that occurred over the
AL FOSSILS evolutionary pathway taken by a single
genus. These fossils establish links between
species by exhibiting traits common to both
an ancestor and its predicted descendants.
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Fossils can reveal past ecological interactions.
COMPARING
HOMININ
FOSSILS
Comparing hominin fossils
is crucial for
understanding human
evolution and the
relationships among
various hominin species.
Homologies are
similarities in structure
between different organisms
that result from descent from a
common ancestor. These
shared characteristics can be
anatomical, developmental, or
molecular.
ANATOMICAL HOMOLOGIES
Closely related
organisms share many
anatomical similarities.
These are likenesses in
structure resulting from
descent from a
common ancestor.
DEVELOPMENTAL HOMOLOGIES
Developmental homologies
are similarities in the
developmental processes of
different organisms that
indicate shared ancestry.
These features are often seen
during embryonic
development.
MOLECULAR
HOMOLOGIES
Similarities in the molecular
structures of different
organisms, such as in DNA, RNA,
or proteins, that indicate shared
ancestry. The universality of the
genetic code, where all
organisms use the same four
bases to code for the same set
of 20 amino acids to produce
proteins, suggests that all
organisms are derived from a
single common ancestor.
BIOGEOGRAPH
Yiogeography is the study of
B
the geographic distribution
of plants, animals, and other
forms of life across Earth's
surface. It examines how
these organisms are
distributed in space and
time, considering both
historical and current factors
such as climate, geography,
and evolutionary processes.
BIOGEOGRAPHY INCLUDES
TWO MAIN SUBCATEGORIES:
• Phytogeography: Focuses on the
distribution of plants.
• Zoogeography: Examines the
distribution of animals and bacteria.
MOLECULAR CLOCKS
Molecular clocks are tools
used in evolutionary
biology to estimate the
time of divergence
between different species
based on the accumulation
of neutral mutations in
DNA or protein sequences
over time.
• Definition: A molecular clock is a segment of DNA or a
protein sequence that accumulates mutations at a
relatively constant rate over time. This allows scientists
to estimate when different species diverged from a
common ancestor.
• Function: Molecular clocks measure the number of
random mutations in a genome over time, which helps in
creating phylogenetic trees and estimating evolutionary
timelines.
TYPES OF MOLECULAR CLOCKS
• Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): mtDNA is commonly used as
a molecular clock because it is inherited solely from the mother,
providing a clear maternal lineage. This makes it easier to trace
evolutionary relationships.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): rRNA genes are another type of
molecular clock, present in all organisms, and are used to study
evolutionary relationships across different domains of life.
APPLICATIONS
Estimating Divergence Times: Molecular clocks help estimate
when species diverged from a common ancestor, which is
particularly useful for organisms with poor fossil records.
Phylogenetic Analysis: They are used to construct
phylogenetic trees, which show the evolutionary
relationships among different species.
CLASSIFICATION &
PHYLOGENY
Classification
Definition: Classification is the process of grouping organisms based
on their shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships. It
involves categorizing organisms into hierarchical ranks such as
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
Phylogeny
Definition: Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history and
relationships among organisms. It is often represented using
phylogenetic trees, which are diagrams showing how different
species are related through common ancestors.
I. TESTING HYPOTHESES ABOUT EVOLUTION
Evaluating Evolutionary Relationships: Phylogenetic trees provide a
framework for testing hypotheses regarding how species have evolved over time.
By analyzing the branching patterns, researchers can assess whether certain
traits evolved independently or were inherited from a common ancestor.
Understanding Adaptive Radiation: Phylogenetic trees can help
scientists explore cases of adaptive radiation, where a single ancestor species
rapidly diversifies into various forms to adapt to different environments.
Predicting Evolutionary Outcomes: By examining the evolutionary
pathways depicted in phylogenetic trees, researchers can make predictions about
how species might evolve in response to environmental changes.
II. LEARNING ABOUT THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXTINCT SPECIES AND ANCESTRAL LINEAGES
Inferring Traits of Ancestral Species: Phylogenetic trees allow scientists
to infer characteristics of extinct species by examining their descendants. For
example, traits present in modern species can suggest what features their common
ancestors may have possessed.
Reconstructing Evolutionary History: By analyzing fossil evidence
alongside phylogenetic trees, researchers can piece together the evolutionary
history of various groups, providing insights into how life has changed over millions
of years.
Understanding Extinction Events: Phylogenetic analysis can help identify
patterns of extinction and survival among lineages, shedding light on how certain
species adapted or failed to adapt during major environmental changes.
III. CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS
Creating Natural Classification Systems: Phylogenetic trees facilitate
the development of classification systems that reflect evolutionary relationships
rather than arbitrary characteristics. This approach leads to more accurate and
meaningful groupings of organisms.
Identifying Monophyletic Groups: Biologists aim to classify organisms
into monophyletic groups (clades) that include a common ancestor and all its
descendants. Phylogenetic trees help identify these groups, ensuring that
classification is consistent with evolutionary history.
Updating Taxonomy: As new data becomes available (e.g., from molecular
studies), phylogenetic trees can prompt revisions in classification systems to
better reflect our understanding of evolutionary relationships.
PERFORMANCE TASK #1
• Construct a simple 3D model of the phylogenetic tree of life.
• Rafflesia Species:
Focus on the different species of Rafflesia found in the Philippines, highlighting their
unique characteristics and island endemism.
• Philippine Forest Turtle (Heosemys leytensis):
Explore the evolutionary relationships of this turtle with other Asian turtles,
emphasizing its unique features and biogeographic history.
• Antherostele Genus:
Create a model illustrating the phylogenetic relationships among the species of
Antherostele, a genus endemic to the Philippines.
• Philippine Pigs (Sus scrofa):
Study the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships among native pigs from
different regions in the Philippines.
• Philippine Tigerperches:
Focus on the molecular phylogeny of these economically important fish, highlighting
their evolutionary relationships.
• Philippine Eagles:
Explore the evolutionary history of the Philippine eagle and its relationship to other eagles
in Southeast Asia.
• Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta):
Create a model showing the unique evolutionary position of the Philippine tarsier among
primates.
• Philippine Crocodiles (Crocodylus mindorensis):
Study the phylogenetic relationships of this endemic species with other crocodiles in
Southeast Asia.
• Philippine Flying Foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus):
Explore the evolutionary relationships among different species of flying foxes in the
Philippines.
• Philippine Monitor Lizards (Varanus bitatawa):
Focus on the phylogenetic relationships of this species with other monitor lizards in the
region.
