Principles of Inheritance and

Variation
 OBJECTIVES
1. explain the principles of inheritance and variation, including
Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment,
and apply these concepts to solve genetic problems.

2. demonstrate a positive attitude toward learning about

genetics by participating in discussions about the importance of
inheritance and variation in understanding biodiversity and
evolution.

3. conduct a hands-on experiment using punnett squares to

predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring from
various parental genotypes, reinforcing their understanding of
inheritance patterns through practical application.
PRINCIPLES OF
INHERITANCE
AND VARIATION
 Genetics
• Organisms reproduce- formation of
offspring of the same kind.
• The resulting offspring most often do not
totally resemble the parent.
• Branch of biology that deals with the
inheritance and variation- Genetics.
• Inheritance- the process by which
characters are passed on from parent to
progeny.
• Variation-it is the degree by which
progeny differ from their parents.
history

• Human knew before 8000-

1000 B. C variation is due
to sexual reproduction
• Exploited variations
present in wild plants &
animals to selectively
breed & select organism
with desirable characters
• Artificial selection &
domestication of wild cow-
Sahiwal cows in Punjab
 Terminology

• Genetics is the branch of life science that deals with the

study of heredity and variation.
• Heredity is the transmission of characters from parents to
their offsprings.
• Variation is the difference among the offsprings and with
their parents.
• Hereditary variations: These are genetical and inheritable.
• Environmental variation: These are acquired and non
inheritable.
 Gregor Johann Mendel: Father of
Genetics

• Known as the father of modern

genetics
• Gregor Mendel developed the
principles of heredity while
studying seven pairs of inherited
characteristics in pea plants.
• Although the significance of his
work was not recognized during
his lifetime, it has become the
basis for the present-day field of
genetics.
 Mendel’s Approach

• Conducted hybridization (artificial pollination/ cross pollination)

experiment for 7 years 1856-1863 & proposed law of
inheritance
• Applied statistical analysis & mathematical logic for biology
problems
• Large sampling size- greater credibility to data
• Experiments- true breeding pea lines (continuous self
pollination)
• Confirmation of inference from experiments on successive
generations of test plants, proved general rules of inheritance
• Mendel investigated two opposing traits- tall & dwarf, yellow &
green seed
Seven pair of contrasting
characters selected by Mendel for
his experiment.
Terminologies

• Phenotype: The external appearance of an organism due to

the influence of genes and environmental factors.
• Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual
responsible for the phenotype .
• Phenotypic ratio: The correct proportion of phenotype in
population.
• Genotypic ratio: The correct proportion of genotype in
population.
• Homozygous: The individual heaving identical genes in an
allelic pair for a character. Ex: TT, tt.
• Heterozygous: The individual heaving un-identical genes in
an allelic pair for a character. Ex: Tt.
• Dominant gene: The gene that expresses its character in
heterozygous condition.
• Recessive: The gene that fails to express its character in
heterozygous condition.
• Hybrid: The progeny obtained by crossing two parents that
differ in characters.
• Back cross: The cross between F1 hybrid and one of its
parents.
• Test cross: The cross between hybrid and its homozygous
recessive parent. It is used to identify the genotype of the
hybrid.
Why Mendel selected pea plant?

• Pure variety are available.

• Pea plants are easy to cultivate.
• Life cycle of plants are only few months. So that result
can be got early.
• Contrasting trait are observed.
• Flowers are bisexual and normally self pollinated.
• Flowers can be cross pollinated only manually.
• Hybrids are fertile.
Inheritance of one gene.
• Inheritance of one gene can be explained by monohybrid
cross.
• The cross between two parents differing in one pair of
contrasting character is called monohybrid cross.
• Crossed tall & dwarf pea plants- Collected seeds & grew to
generate first hybrid generation/ Filial generation/F1
• F1 plants- Tall & none were dwarf
• For other traits also- F1 generation resembled only one
parent & trait of other parent were not shown
• Self pollinated F1 – Filial 2 generation/ F2
• F2 generation- 1/4th were dwarf & 3/4th tall- identical to
parents
• F1 generation one parent trait shown & F2 both parent trait
shown in the ratio- 3:1 & no blending were seen
• Mendel proposed- Something is stably being passed to the
next generation through gametes ‘factors’ – genes
• Genes/factors- unit of inheritance, contain the information
required to express particular trait
• Genes which code for pair of contrasting trait- alleles
• Alphabetical symbols were used; T-Tall, t- dwarf
• Plants pair of alleles for height- TT, Tt & tt
• Mendel proposed- true breeding tall or dwarf plant- identical
or homozygous allele pair of TT or tt (genotype)
• Descriptive term tall or dwarf- phenotype
• Mendel found phenotype of heterozygote Tt of F1 was same
as parent with TT & proposed, in a pair of dissimilar factors
one dominates the other & hence called dominant (T) &
recessive (t)
Monohybrid cross

P Phenotype Tall x Dwarf

Genotype TT tt
Homozygous Dominant Homozygous Recessive
F1 Tt Tall is dominant to
All Tall
Heterozygous Dwarf
Self pollinated
Gamets T t
F2 T TT Tt
tall tall
t Tt tt
Tall dwarf

Phenotypic ratio 3:1 Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1

• Production of gametes & formation of zygotes- Punnett
Square
• Developed by- British scientist Reginald C. Punnett
• Graphical representation- calculate probability of possible
genotypes in genetic cross
• Gametes- on two sides, top row & left columns

• Self- pollination- 50%

• F2- 3/4th tall & 1/4th Dwarf-
phenotypically
• 1/4 : ½ : ¼ ratio of TT: Tt: tt-
genotype
Test cross: The cross between hybrid and its homozygous recessive
parent I called test cross. It is used to identify the genotype of the
hybrid.
Mendelian laws of heredity.
• Rules were proposed- Principles or Laws of Inheritance: First
Law or Law of Dominance & Second law or Law of
Segregation
• Law of dominance
1. Characters are controlled by discrete units called Factors
2. Factors occurs in pair
3. In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair
dominates (dominant) the other (recessive)
Used to explain the expression of only one of the parental
characters in monohybrid cross (F1) & expression of both in F2.
Also explains proportion 3:1 in F2
Law of segregation
• It states that, ‘when a pair of factors for a character brought
together in a hybrid, they segregate (separate) during the
formation of gametes.
• Alleles do not blend & both characters recovered in F2 & one
in F1
• Factors which is present in parent segregate & gametes
receives only one of two factors
• Homozygous parent- one kind gamete
• Heterozygous parent- two kind gamete each one have one
allele with equal proportion
Incomplete dominance:
• Correns discovered Incomplete dominance in Merabilis
jalapa.
• It is also called partial dominance, semi dominance.
• The inheritance in which allele for a specific character is not
completely dominant over other allele is called Incomplete
dominance.
• Snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.- Cross between true breed
red flower (RR) & white flower (rr), F1 generation- Pink (Rr) &
after self pollination in F2 generation- 1 (RR) Red: 2 (Rr) Pink:
1 (rr) white
• Genotype ratio same as Mendelian cross & Phenotype ratio
different than Mendelian cross
Incomplete dominance: Ex snapdragon.
( Dog flower plant)
Parent: Red X White
Genotype. RR WW
Gametes R W
F1 generation Pink (Hybrid)
RW
Self pollination
Gametes R W
F2 generation
R RR RW
Red Pink
W RW WW
Pink white

The phenotypic ratio is

1:2:1.
The genotypic ratio is 1:2:1
 CO-DOMINANCE
• Both the alleles for a character are dominant and express its full
character is called co-dominance.
• Ex AB blood group of human being.
• Blood group in humans are controlled by 3 alleles of a gene I.
• They are IA IB and i.
• The ABO locus is located on chromosome 9.
• IA is responsible for production of antigen –A.
• IB is responsible for production of antigen –B.
• i does not produces any antigen.
• IA and IB are co-dominant and dominant over i.

Blood Group Genotype

A- Group IAIA or IA i

B-Group IBIB or IBi

AB-Group IAIB

O-Group ii
• ABO blood grouping- multiple allele
• Three alleles govern same character
• Multiple allele is found when population studies are made
• Single gene product may produce more than one effect
• Eg.- Starch Synthesis in Pea seeds- controlled by a gene having
two allele B & b
• Starch synthesis effective if homozygote BB & produce large
starch grains
• Homozygote bb – lesser efficiency in starch synthesis & seeds
are wrinkled
• Heterozygote Bb – round seeds, intermediate size
Inheritance of two gene:

Mendel’s 2nd law or Law of independent assortment:

• It states that, ‘factors for different pairs of contrasting
characters in a hybrid assorted (distributed) independently
during gamete formation.
Mendel’s 2nd law can be explained by dihybrid cross.
• Dihybrid cross: The cross between two parents, which differs
in two pairs of contrasting characters.
Dihybrid cross:

Parents
Phenotype Round Yellow Wrinkled Green

Genotype RRYY rryy

Gametes RY ry

F1 generation RrYy
Round Yellow
Phenotypic ratio : 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Dihybrid test cross.

• F1 hybrid is crossed with recessive green wrinkled pea plant.

• Recessive green wrinkled – rryy, Gamete ry
• F1 hybrid : round yellow- RrYy, Gametes:
RY, Ry, rY, ry.

Gametes RY Ry rY ry
ry RrYy Rryy rryY rryy

Phenotypic ratio – 1 : 1 : 1 :1