LINEAR CONTROL

SYSTEMS

B PAVAN KUMAR
Assistant professor, EEE
dept
SNIST
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION:
Concepts of Control Systems- Open Loop and closed loop
control systems and their differences- Classification of control
systems, Feed-Back Characteristics, Effects of feedback.
Mathematical models – Differential equations, Impulse
Response and transfer functions – Translational and
Rotational mechanical systems
Transfer function representation:
Transfer Function of Synchro transmitter and Receiver, Block
diagram representation of systems considering electrical
systems as examples -Block diagram algebra – Representation
by Signal flow graph - Reduction using Mason’s gain formula.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
• The word “Control” usually is taken to mean
regulate, direct or command
• A control system is an arrangement of
physical components are connected or
related in such a manner as to regulate,
direct or command itself or another system.
• In simple way it is possible to consider every
physical object is a control system. Because
every thing alters its environment in some
manner if not actively then passively.
Examples :
A mirror directing a beam of light shining on it at some acute angle the
mirror may be considered an elementary control system, controlling the
beam of light.
• If we want to regulate the beam as we desire the mirror is pivoted
at one end and adjusted up and down with a screw at the other
end is properly termed as a control system
• The angle of reflected light is regulated by means of the screw.
 Examples for different types of control systems

All man made systems are physical systems

Examples: Electrical switch , Bread Toaster , Washing
machine etc…

Non Physical systems :-

Examples : Demand & supply, Inflation rate control , Budget
control.

Bio-logical control system (Natural control system)

Examples: Human being, Seasonal Fruits

(Manmade + Bio-logical control system)

Examples:- Automobile vehicle
 Examples of control system

Input :
Input may be a physical variable or more
abstract quantities such as Reference , Set
point or Desired Values for the output of the
control system.
Output:
The output is the actual response obtained from
a control system
• It may or may not be equal to the specified
response applied by the input.
Eg 1 :- Electric Switch
•An Electric switch is a man made
control system controlling the flow of
electricity.
•Flipping the switch on or off may be
considered as a input. The output is the
flow of electricity
Eg 2: Room heater
•The input to the system is a reference
temperature usually specified by appropriately
setting a thermostat. The output is the actual
temperature of the room.
•When the thermostat detects that the output is
less than the input, the furnace provides heat until
the temperature of the room becomes equal to the
reference input. Then the furnace is automatically
turned off.
•When the temperature falls below the reference
temperature, the furnace is turned on again
Ques: Identify the input and output for an
automated washing machine
Many Washing machines operate in the
manner that, after clothes have been put into
the machine, the soap or detergent, bleach
and water are entered in the proper
amounts. The wash and spin cycle is then set
on a timer and washer is energized. When
the cycle is completed the machine shuts
itself off.
Ans: If the proper amount of bleach, detergent
and water and the appropriate temperature of
the water are predetermined or specified by the
manufacturer or automatically entered by the
machine itself, then the input is the time for
wash and spin cycle. The timer is usually set by
the human operator.
The output of a washing machine is cleanliness
of the clothes (however the percentage of
cleanliness depends on the absence of the
foreign substances/stains from the items to be
washed).
Question:
Identify the human organ system components
and their respective input and output and
describe the operation of biological control
system consisting of a human being reaching an
object.

• The basic components of this control system:

the brain, arm & hand and eyes.
• The brain sends the required nervous system
signal to the arm & hand and to reach the object
• The signal is amplified in the muscles of arm &
hand which serves as a power actuator for the
system.
 The eyes are employed as sensing device
continuously “feeding back” the position of
the hand to the brain.
 Hand position is the output for the system
and input is the object position.
• Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System
• Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output) comes out as long as you
keep your hand under the machine, irrespective of how much
your hand is dried.
• Automatic Washing Machine - This machine runs according to
the pre-set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
• Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time
irrespective of toasting is completed or not.
• Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker - These machines also function for
pre adjusted time only.
• Timer Based Clothes Drier - This machine dries wet clothes for
pre-adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are
dried.
• Light Switch - Lamps glow whenever light switch is on
irrespective of light is required or not.
• Volume on Stereo System - Volume is adjusted manually
irrespective of output volume level.
Advantages of Open Loop Control
System
• Simple in construction and design.
• Economical.
• Easy to maintain.
• Generally stable.
• Convenient to use as output is difficult to
measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control
System
• They are inaccurate.
• They are unreliable.
• Any change in output cannot be corrected
automatically.
Closed Loop Control System
• Control system in which the output has an
effect on the input quantity in such a manner
that the input quantity will adjust itself
based on the output generated is
called closed loop control system.
• Open loop control system can be converted
in to closed loop control system by providing
a feedback. This feedback automatically
makes the suitable changes in the output due
to external disturbance.
Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System
Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
• Automatic Electric Iron - Heating elements are
controlled by output temperature of the iron.
• Servo Voltage Stabilizer - Voltage controller operates
depending upon output voltage of the system.
• Water Level Controller - Input water is controlled by
water level of the reservoir.
• Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar - The
direction of missile is controlled by comparing the
target and position of the missile.
• An Air Conditioner - An air conditioner functions
depending upon the temperature of the room.
• Cooling System in Car - It operates depending upon
the temperature which it controls.
Washing machine with closed loop system
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System

• Closed loop control systems are more accurate

even in the presence of non-linearity.
• Highly accurate as any error arising is
corrected due to presence of feedback signal.
• Bandwidth range is large.
• Facilitates automation.
• The sensitivity of system may be made small to
make system more stable.
• This system is less affected by noise.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
• They are costlier.
• They are complicated to design.
• Required more maintenance.
• Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
• Overall gain is reduced due to presence of
feedback.
• Stability is the major problem and more care is
needed to design a stable closed loop system.
 Linear Control Systems

•In order to understand the linear control

system, we should know the principle of
superposition.
•The principle of superposition theorem
includes two the important properties and they
are explained below:

Homogeneity: A system is said to be

homogeneous, if we multiply input with some
constant A then output will also be multiplied
by the same value of constant (i.e. A).
Additivity:
•Suppose we have a system S and we are giving
the input to this system as a1 for the first time and
we are getting output as b1 On second time we are
giving input a2 and correspond to this we are
getting output as b2.
•Now suppose this time we giving input as
summation of the previous inputs (i.e. a1 + a2) and
corresponding to this input, suppose we are
getting output as (b1 + b2) then we can say that
system S is following the property of additivity.
•Now we are able to define the linear control
systems as those types of control systems which
follow the principle of homogeneity and additivity.
Differences between open loop and closed loop systems
 Control system-Feed back

If either the output or some part of the output is

returned to the input side and utilized as part of the
system input, then it is known as feedback.
Feedback plays an important role in order to improve
the performance of the control systems.
Types of Feedback


Positive feedback

Negative feedback
 Positive Feedback :

The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system

Transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,
T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control
system.
G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency
Negative Feedback :

Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference

input, R(s) and system output. The following figure shows the
block diagram of the negative feedback control system

Transfer function of negative feedback control system

is,
 Effect of Feedback :
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop


control system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case,


'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case,


'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
•In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the
overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency
range.

If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
'GH' value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.

If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

• In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the
sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a
way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.
Effect of Feedback on Stability
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control.


Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1),



then the output of the control system will be infinite. So, the
control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to
make the control system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the
transfer function relations with and without feedback due to
noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS - MATHEMATICAL MODELS

 The control systems can be represented with a set of

mathematical equations known as mathematical model.
 These models are useful for analysis and design of control
systems. Analysis of control system means finding the output
when we know the input and mathematical model.
 Design of control system means finding the mathematical
model when we know the input and the output.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.


Differential equation model

Transfer function model

Sate space model.
Differential Equation
Model :
Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical
model of control systems.
Transfer Function Model :

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control

systems.
The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as
the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by
assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the
corresponding Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s)
and X(s). i.e., Transfer Function=Y(s)/X(s)
 Modelling of Mechanical Systems

There are two types of mechanical systems based on

the type of motion.


Translational mechanical systems

Rotational mechanical systems.

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems:

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These

systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are mass,
spring and dashpot or damper.
Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems:
Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly
consist of three basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring
and dashpot.
 Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems

Force Voltage Analogy :

Torque Voltage Analogy :
Force Current Analogy :
Torque Current Analogy :
Obtain the transfer function of the system shown below
Obtain the transfer function of the system shown below
 CONTROL SYSTEMS - BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 Block diagram is a shorthand, graphical representation of a
physical system, illustrating the functional relationships
among its components.
OR
 A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation of
the cause-and-effect relationship of a system.

 The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block,

with one input and one output.

 The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually

contains a description of or the name of the element, or the
symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on
the input to yield the output.

 The arrows represent the direction of information or signal

flow.
Components of a Block Diagram for a Linear Time
Invariant System:

Block diagram has four components:

– Signals
– System/ block
– Summing junction
– Pick-off/ Take-off point
Summing point

Take off point :

Series Connection :
Series connection is also called cascade connection.
Parallel Connection :
Feedback Connection :
Rules of Block diagrams
Rules for simplifying the block
diagrams
 Example-1

Answer
 Example

H2

R _ C
+ _ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1
 H2
G1
R _ C
+ _ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1
 H2
G1
R _ C
+ _ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
 H2
G1
R _ C
+ _ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
 H2
G1
R _ G1G2 C
+ _ + G3
1  G1G2 H 1
 H2
G1
R _ G1G2G3 C
+ _ +
1  G1G2 H 1
Example-2
Example-3
 Example-4

Answer
Example-5
3. Eliminate loop II
R (s ) G1G2 Y (s )
1  G2 H 2

H 1 (1  G2 H 2 )
H3 
G2

Y (s ) G1G2

R(s ) 1  G2 H 2  G1G2 H 3  G1 H 1  G1G2 H 1 H 2
Example-6
Signal Flow Graphs Method
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
Example#2 : Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in
figure below
Transfer function of synchro transmitter
and Receiver
 A synchro transmitter and receiver are
electromechanical devices used for measuring
angles and rotational positions.
 The synchro transmitter converts the angular
position of a shaft into an electrical signal, which is
transmitted to the synchro receiver.
 The synchro receiver then converts this electrical
signal back into a corresponding angular position.
 The synchro transmitter is located on one end of a
shaft that is being measured for angle or rotational
position.

 The transmitter consists of a stator winding and a

rotor with a single winding, which is connected to
the shaft.

 As the shaft rotates, the rotor winding moves

relative to the stator winding, inducing an AC
voltage in the stator winding.

 This voltage is proportional to the angle of the

shaft and is transmitted to the synchro receiver.
 The synchro receiver is located on the other end of
the system and receives the electrical signal from
the transmitter.
 The receiver consists of a stator winding and a rotor
with a single winding, which is connected to the
output shaft.
 The AC voltage from the transmitter is applied to
the rotor of the receiver, inducing a magnetic field
that causes the rotor to rotate.
 The angle of the output shaft is proportional to the
voltage from the transmitter.
The transfer function of a synchro transmitter and
receiver system can be described using the following
equations:

Transmitter: Vt = Kt * θ

where Vt is the output voltage of the transmitter, θ is

the angle of the shaft, and Kt is the transmitter
sensitivity constant.

Receiver: θr = Kr * Vt

where θr is the angle of the synchro receiver shaft, Vt

is the input voltage to the receiver, and Kr is the
receiver sensitivity constant.
Combining these two equations, we can derive the
overall transfer function of the synchro system:

θr = Kr * Kt * θ

This equation shows that the output angle of the

synchro receiver is proportional to the input angle
of the synchro transmitter, with a proportionality
constant of Kr * Kt.
Thank You