Outline

 The Need for Databases

 Data Models
 Relational Databases
 Database Design
 Storage Manager
 Query Processing
 Transaction Manager

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Management System (DBMS)
 DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
 Collection of interrelated data
 Set of programs to access the data
 An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
 Database Applications:
 Banking: transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
 Databases can be very large.
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 University Database Example
 Application program examples
 Add new students, instructors, and courses
 Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
 Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages
(GPA) and generate transcripts
 In the early days, database applications were built directly on
top of file systems

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data

 Data redundancy and inconsistency

 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation
 Multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried”
in program code rather than being stated explicitly
 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.)

 Atomicity of updates
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Concurrent access needed for performance
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
 Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it
by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
 Security problems
 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Levels of Abstraction
 Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
 Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
 View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View of Data

An architecture for a database system

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Instances and Schemas
 Similar to types and variables in programming languages
 Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
 Example: The database consists of information about a set of
customers and accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema–
schema the overall physical structure of the database
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable
 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema
 In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components
should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Models
 A collection of tools for describing
 Data
 Data relationships
 Data semantics
 Data constraints

 Relational model
 Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
 Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
 Semistructured data model (XML)
 Other older models:
 Network model
 Hierarchical model

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Model
 All the data is stored in various tables.
 Example of tabular data in the relational model
Columns

Rows

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 A Sample Relational Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
 DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
 Database schema
 Integrity constraints
 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
 Authorization
 Who can access what

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized
by the appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
 Two classes of languages
 Pure – used for proving properties about computational
power and for optimization
 Relational Algebra
 Tuple relational calculus
 Domain relational calculus
 Commercial – used in commercial systems
 SQL is the most widely used commercial language

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL
 The most widely used commercial language
 SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
 SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
 To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually
embedded in some higher-level language
 Application programs generally access databases through one of
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow
SQL queries to be sent to a database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.

Database design requires that we find a “good” collection of
relation schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in
the database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas
should we have and how should the attributes be
distributed among the various relation schemas?
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the
database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Design (Cont.)
 Is there any problem with this relation?

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Approaches
 Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each of the
relations in the database is “good”
 Two ways of doing so:
 Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and
relationships
 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship
diagram:
 Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
 Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Object-Relational Data Models
 Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
 Object Relational Data Models
 Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
 Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-
atomic values such as nested relations.
 Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
 Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 XML: Extensible Markup Language
 Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
 Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
 The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
 XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
 A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Engine
 Storage manager
 Query processing
 Transaction manager

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Storage Management
 Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
 Interaction with the OS file manager
 Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
 Issues:
 Storage access
 File organization
 Indexing and hashing

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Processing (Cont.)
 Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
 Equivalent expressions
 Different algorithms for each operation
 Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a
query can be enormous
 Need to estimate the cost of operations
 Depends critically on statistical information about relations
which the database must maintain
 Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute
cost of complex expressions

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transaction Management
 What if the system fails?
 What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same
data?
 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
 Transaction-management component ensures that the
database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system
failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and
transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among
the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the
database.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Users and Administrators

Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database System Internals

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Architecture

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
 Centralized
 Client-server
 Parallel (multi-processor)
 Distributed

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL –Non Procedural Language

 database language should allow a user to

 create the database and relation structures;
 perform basic data management tasks, such as the insertion, modification, and
deletion of data from the relations;
 perform both simple and complex queries
 a Data Definition Language (DDL) for defining the database structure and controlling
access to the data;
 a Data Manipulation Language (DML) for retrieving and updating data.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 DBMS Advantages

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 DBMS Advantages
 Control of data redundancy
 Data consistency
 More information from the same amount of data
 Sharing of data
 Improved data integrity
 Improved security
 Enforcement of standards
 Economy of scale
 Balance of conflicting requirements
 Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
 Increased concurrency
 Improved backup and recovery services

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Disadvantages

 Complexity
 Size
 Additional hardware costs
 Cost of DBMSs
 Performance
 Higher impact of a failure

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Functions of a DBMS

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Functions of a DBMS
 Data storage, retrieval, and update
 A user-accessible catalog
 furnish a catalog in which descriptions of data items are stored
and which is accessible to users.
 Transaction support
 ensure either that all the updates corresponding to a given
transaction are made or that none of them is made.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Functions of a DBMS

 Concurrency control services

 ensure that the database is updated correctly when multiple users are
updating the database concurrently.
 Recovery services
 mechanism for recovering the database in the event that the database is
damaged in any way
 Authorization services
 furnish a mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the
database.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
  Support for data communication
 capable of integrating with communication software.
 Integrity services
 ensure that both the data in the database and changes to the data
follow certain rules.
 Services to promote data independence
 include facilities to support the independence of programs from the
actual structure of the database.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
  Utility services
 import facilities
 monitoring facilities
 statistical analysis programs
 garbage collection and reallocation

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Multi-User DBMS Architectures

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Multi-User DBMS Architectures

 Teleprocessing
 computer with a single central processing unit (CPU) and a number of
terminals
 processing is performed within the boundaries of the same physical
computer
 User terminal incapable of functioning on
 their own
 tremendous burden on the central computer

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 File Server Architecture

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 File-Server Architecture

 the processing is distributed about the network

 The file-server holds the files required by the applications and the DBMS
 the applications and the DBMS run on each workstation
 lead to performance problems
 There is a large amount of network traffic.
 A full copy of the DBMS is required on each workstation.
 Concurrency, recovery, and integrity control are more complex because there
can be multiple DBMSs accessing the same files.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Traditional Two-Tier Client–Server
Architecture

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Traditional Two-Tier Client–Server
Architecture
 client process, which requires some resource, and a server, which
provides the resource.
 The client (tier 1) is primarily responsible for the presentation of data
to the
 user, and the server (tier 2) is primarily responsible for supplying data
services

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Three-Tier Client–Server Architecture

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
  Business logic is the programming that manages communication
between an end user interface and a database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transaction Processing Monitors

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transaction Processing Monitors
 A program that controls data transfer between clients and servers in
order to provide a consistent environment, particularly for online
transaction processing (OLTP).
 Transaction routing
 Managing distributed transactions
 Load balancing
 Funneling
 Increased reliability

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan