Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Introduction Casting
Historical Perspective (Civilization, Natural & History
Synthetic)
Process
Materials Science & Engineering
Advantages
Materials paradigm
Classification
Why Study (Materials, Design problem, Selection, Economics)
Considerations
Classification of Solid Materials, Metal Alloys
Grain Structure
Applications & Processing
Solidification
Metal Alloys

Ceramics
Rolling
Polymers

Structure :
Forging

Atomic and Interatomic Bonding

Crystalline Solids Sheet metal forming

Microstructure

Properties of Solid Materials

Electrical

Thermal

Magnetic

Optical
 Casting
History : Casting was first used around 4000 B.C. to make ornaments, arrowheads, etc

Process -

1. Pouring molten metal into mold containing a cavity that produces the desired part shape.

2. Solidification

3. Removing part from mold

Advantages :

1. Produce complex shapes & can incorporate internal cavities or hollow parts.

2. Very large parts can be produced in 1 piece.

3. Utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process by other methods, such as hard metals that are difficult to machine or plastically deform.

4. Less expensive

Classification :

Considerations :

1. Flow of molten metal into mold cavity, and design of gating systems for molten metal to fill the cavity.

2. Solidification and cooling of metal in mold

3. Influence of mold material.

Grain structure : The grains generally grow in a direction opposite to that of heat transfer out through the mold.

Fine equiaxed grains - At the mold walls, which are at ambient temperature at first or typically are much cooler than the molten metal, the metal cools rapidly, producing a solidified skin, or shell, of fine equiaxed grains.

Equiaxed and coarse - As the driving force of the heat transfer decreases away from the mold walls.

Columnar grains - Those grains that have favorable orientation grow preferentially.

Those grains that have substantially different orientations are blocked from further growing.

Homogenous nucleation - Grains (crystals) grow upon themselves, starting at mold wall.

Solidification :

Pure Metals :
They have a clearly defined melting point & it solidifies at a constant temperature. After molten metal temperature drops to its freezing point, its temperature remains [Link] solidified metal now called the casting is then removed from mold & allowed to cool

to ambient temperature.

Eg: Pure aluminium - solidifies at 660◦C, iron at 1537◦C, and tungsten at 3410◦C

Alloys :

Solidification in alloys begins when temperature drops below liquidus,

Complete when it reaches the solidus,

Mushy or pasty state - Within this temperature range, the alloy consisting of columnar dendrites (from the Greek dendron,meaning akin to, and drys,meaning tree).

The spaces between dendrite arms are taken up by liquid metal. Dendrites have 3D arms & branches (secondary arms), which eventually interlock. Study of dendritic structures contribute to compositional variations, segregation, and microporosity within a cast part.

Freezing range - The width of mushy zone is described in terms of a temperature difference, known as the freezing range, as
Freezing range = −

Solidification pattern for gray cast iron in a 180-mm square casting. Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites begin to reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about 2 hours more for this casting to solidify completely.

Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content of the metal increases.

Cooling Rates :

a. Slow () - Long local solidification times result in coarse dendritic structures, with large spacing between dendrite arms.
b. Fast () - Short local solidification times, the structure becomes finer, with smaller dendrite arm spacing.

Structure–Property Relationships –
Freeze Casting
Fluid Flow
Fluidity of Molten Metal

The capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities. It consists of two basic factors:
(a) Molten metal
Viscosity - As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature increase, fluidity decreases.
Surface Tension - A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces fluidity. An oxide film on the surface of pure molten aluminum triples the surface tension.
Inclusions - A liquid with sand in it has a higher viscosity and thus lower fluidity.
Solidification Pattern of the Alloy - The shorter the freezing range, as in pure metals and eutectics, the higher the fluidity. Conversely, alloys with long freezing ranges, such as solid–solution alloys, have lower fluidity.

(b) Casting parameters

Mold Design - The design & dimensions of the sprue, runners, and risers all influence fluidity.
Mold Material & Its Surface Characteristics - The higher the thermal conductivity of the mold and the rougher its surfaces, the lower is the fluidity of the molten metal. Although heating the mold improves fluidity, it slows down solidification of the metal; thus, the casting develops coarse grains
and hence has lower strength.
Degree of Superheat - Superheat (defined as increment of temperature of alloy above its melting point) improves fluidity by delaying solidification. Pouring temperature often is specified instead of degree of superheat, because it is more easily measured & controlled.
Rate of Pouring - The slower the rate of pouring molten metal into the mold, the lower the fluidity because of the higher rate of cooling when poured slowly.
Heat Transfer
Defects
Metallic projections
Cavities
Discontinuities
Defective surface
Incomplete casting
Incorrect dimensions or shape
Inclusions
 Reference

1. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology - 8th Edition : Serope Kalpakjian (Illinois Institute of Technology) &
Steven R. Schmid (The University of Notre Dame)