Research Process
Research Process
The research process is very similar to undertaking a journey,
often referred to as the research journey.
Along a research journey, there are two important decisions to
make.
- the first is to decide what we want to find out about or, in other
words, what research questions we want to find answers to, i.e
identification of our research problems
- the second is to decide how to go about finding answers to the
research questions, i.e., the path to finding answers, constituting the
research methodology.
Research Process ( Cont…)
There are various practical steps through which we must pass in
our research journey, in order to find the answers to our research
questions.
The sequence of these steps is not fixed and with experience and
learning, we can change it.
At each operational step in the research process, we are required to
choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models
of research methodology, which will help us best achieve our
research objectives.
This is where our knowledge base of research methodology plays
a crucial role.
The Research Process: Characteristics and Requirements
Research is a process for collecting, analysing and interpreting information
to answer research questions.
To qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must,
as far as possible, be
◦ controlled,
◦ rigorous,
◦ systematic,
◦ valid & verifiable,
◦ empirical and
◦ critical.
The Research Process: Characteristics and Requirements
CONTROLLED – In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. Most
outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and
interacting factors.
In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to link the
effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.
In the social sciences extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link.
The concept of control implies that in exploring causality in relation to two
variables, we set up our study in that minimises the effects of other factors
affecting the relationship.
(e.g. In physical sciences and other researches done in a laboratory, this can be
achieved to a very large extent.)
The Research Process: Characteristics and Requirements
In the social sciences it is extremely difficult, as research is carried out on
issues relating to human beings living in society, where such controls
are impossible. Therefore, in the social sciences, as we cannot control
external factors, we attempt to control and quantify their impact.
RIGOROUS – We must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures
followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and
justified.
Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical and the
social sciences and within the social sciences.
The Research Process: Characteristics and Requirements
Systematic – This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation
follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard
way. Some procedures must follow others.
Valid and verifiable – This concept implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of
our findings is correct and can be verified.
Empirical – This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or observations.
Critical – Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial
to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be fool proof and free from
any drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.
Research Process : An Eight-Step Model
In order to commence with our research journey, we can consider the
following eight- step model, the steps mentioned as follows :
1. Formulating a Research Problem
2. Conceptualising a Research Design
3. Constructing an Instrument for Data Collection
4. Selecting a Sample
5. Writing a Research Proposal
6. Collecting Data
7. Processing Data
8. Writing a Research Report
Research Process: An Eight-Step Model
PHASE I II III
Main Task Deciding Planning Undertaking
WHAT HOW CONDUCTING
(Research (to gather evidence (The required
Question to to answer the information)
answer? research questions)
Operation 1.Formulati 2.Conceptualising a 6.Collecting
al steps/ ng a Research Design Data
Research Research 3.Constructing an 7.Processing
Journey Problem Instrument for Data
Data Collection 8.Writing a
4.Selecting a Research
Sample Report
5.Writing a Research
Proposal 9
Research Process: Literature Review as Requirement in Most Steps
Literature review has the following functions:
1. It provides a theoretical background to our study.
2. It helps you establish the links between what we are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
3. It enables us to show how our findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge
in our profession. It helps us to integrate our research findings into the existing body of
knowledge.
The literature review can help in four ways:
1. Brings clarity and focus to our research problem;
2. Improves our research methodology;
3. Broadens our knowledge base in our research area; and
4. Contextualizes our findings.
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
1. Searching for the existing literature in our area of study (books, journals, internet)
2. Reviewing the selected literature.
3. Developing a theoretical framework.
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Research Process: Literature Review as Requirement in Most Steps
While going through the literature we should carefully and critically examine it
with respect to the following aspects:
Note whether the knowledge relevant to our theoretical framework has been
confirmed beyond doubt.
Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics,
measurement procedures, etc.) and the criticisms of them.
Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations.
Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and
give our opinion about the validity of these differences.
Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps that exist in the
body of knowledge.
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Phase I : Deciding What should be the Research Study
Step I: Formulating a Research Problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the
research process.
A research problem identifies our destination: it should provide information
about what we intend to research.
The more specific and clearer we are in the formulation of the research
problem, -> the better will be the outcome, (everything else that follows in the
research process, are greatly influenced by this way of formulation).
The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide what we want
to find out about. Hence, we should examine it thoroughly, carefully and
critically.
It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem in the light of the
financial resources at our disposal, the time available, and our expertise and
knowledge in the field of study.
Phase II : Planning a Research Study
Step II: Conceptualising a Research Design
An extremely important feature of research is the use of appropriate methods.
The main function of a research design is to explain how you will find answers to your research
questions.
The strength of what you find largely rests on how it was found.
A research design sets out the specific details of our enquiry. It should include the following: a) the study
design per se, b) the logistical arrangements that we propose to undertake, c) the measurement
procedures, d) the sampling strategy, e) the frame of analysis and f) the time-frame.
The selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in enabling us to arrive at valid findings,
comparisons and conclusions.
A faulty design results in misleading findings and is therefore equivalent to wasting human and financial
resources.
When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is valid, workable and manageable.
Phase II : Planning a Research Study (Cont.)
Step III: Constructing an Instrument for Data Collection
Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called
a ‘research tool’ or a ‘research instrument’, for example observation forms,
interview schedules, questionnaires and interview guides.
The construction of a research instrument is the first ‘practical’ step in carrying
out a study.
We will need to decide how we are going to collect data for the proposed study and
then construct a research instrument for data collection.
If we plan to collect data specifically for your study (primary data), we need
either to construct a research instrument or to select one that has already been
constructed.
If we plan to use secondary data (information already collected for
other purposes), we will need to identify what information is needed
and then develop a form to extract the required data.
Field testing (or pre-testing) a research tool is an integral part of
instrument construction. As a rule of thumb, the pre-test of a research
instrument should not be carried out on the sample of our study
population but on a similar population which we are not proposing to
study.
If we are planning to use a computer for data analysis, we may wish to
provide space for coding the data on the research instrument.
Phase II : Planning a Research Study (Cont.)
Step IV: Selecting a Sample
The accuracy of our research findings depends upon way of selecting sample.
The basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise the gap between the values obtained
from your sample and those prevalent in the study population (within the limitation of cost).
When selecting a sample to achieve two key aims –
a) the avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample; and
b) the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources.
There are three categories of sampling design:
a) random/probability sampling designs,
b) non-random/non-probability sampling designs and
c)‘mixed’ sampling design.
Type of sampling strategy influence our ability to make generalisations from the sample
findings about the study population, and the type of statistical tests we can apply to the data.
Phase II : Planning a Research Study (Cont.)
Step V: Writing a Research Proposal
A research proposal is an overall plan that provides detailed information about our research
problem and how we are planning to investigate.
The main function of a research proposal to detail the operational plan for obtaining
answers to our research questions.
It ensures – and reassures the readers of – the validity of the methodology to obtain
answers accurately and objectively.
A research proposal must provide the following information about our study:
I. What we are II. How we plan to III. Why we selected the
proposing to do ? proceed ? proposed strategy ?
1. A statement of the 4. The setting for your study; 7. Information on data processing
objectives of the study; 5. The research instrument(s) procedures;
2. A list of hypotheses; that are to be used; 8. An outline of the proposed chapters
3. The study design you are 6. Information on sample size for the report;
proposing to use; and sampling design; 9. The study’s problems and limitations;
10. The proposed time-frame
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Phase III: Conducting a Research Study
Step VI: Collecting Data
Having formulated a research problem, 2) developed a study design, 3) constructed a
research instrument and 4) selected a sample,
We then collect the data from which we will draw inferences and conclusions for
our study.
Many methods could be used to gather the required information.
As a part of the research design, we have already decided upon the procedure we wanted
to adopt to collect our data.
In this phase we actually collect the data.
For example, depending upon our plans,
◦ we might commence interviews,
◦ mail out a questionnaire,
◦ conduct nominal/focus group discussions or
◦ make observations.
Phase III: Conducting a Research Study (Cont..)
Step VII: Processing and Displaying data
The way we analyse the information we collected, largely depends upon two things:
◦ the type of information (descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal); and
◦ the way we want to communicate your findings to your readers.
In addition to the qualitative–quantitative distinction, it is important for data analysis that we decide
-
◦ whether the data is to be analysed manually or by a computer.
If our study is purely descriptive, we can write our dissertation/report on the basis of our field notes,
and manually analyse the contents of our notes (content analysis)
If we want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide upon
◦ the type of analysis required (i.e. frequency distribution, cross-tabulations or other statistical
procedures, such as regression analysis, factor analysis and analysis of variance) and
◦ how it should be presented.
◦ need to identify the variables to be subjected to these statistical procedures.
Phase III: Conducting a Research Study (Cont..)
Step VIII: Writing a Research Report
There are two broad categories of reports: quantitative and qualitative.
The distinction is more academic than real as in most studies we need to combine
quantitative and qualitative skills. Nevertheless, there are some solely qualitative and some
solely quantitative studies.
Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step of the research process.
This report informs the world
◦ what we have done,
◦ what we have discovered and
◦ what conclusions we have drawn from our findings.
The research report should be written
◦ In an academic style and
◦ be divided into different chapters and/or sections based upon the main themes of the
study
