1.1 What is a computer network?

 A computer network is a system in which a number of

independent computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals, such as files and printers. In the
modern world, computer networks have become almost
indispensable. All major businesses, and governmental
and educational institutions make use of computer
networks to such an extent that it is now difficult to
imagine a world without them.

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 Definition cont…
2

Networking - the interconnection of workstations, peripherals, terminals and other

devices.
Whatis.com: “In information technology, networking is the construction, design,
and use of network, including the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and
so forth), the selection and use of telecommunication protocol and computer
software for using and managing the network, and the establishment of operation
policies and procedures related to the network.”

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 Benefits of Network Computing
3

 Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs.

Computer networks achieve these goals in four
primary ways:
I. Sharing Information (Or Data)
II. Sharing Hardware (Peripheral Devices)
III. Sharing Programs/Software
IV. Centralizing Administration And Support

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 1.2. Basics of Data Communication
4

 Data transmission is the process of conveying data

between two points by way of a communication
medium. A wide variety of media are available :
 Bounded media confine the data to specific physical
pathways. Common examples of bounded media are wire and
optical fiber cables.
 unbounded media transmit the data-carrying signal through
space, independent of a cable. Broadcast radio and television
are examples of unbounded media

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5

NOTE : Electrical cable types are frequently referred

to as “copper" because that metal is the most
frequently used conductor. You may hear fiber optic
cables called simply "fiber" or "glass".
 Three Basic elements of any

communication Process:
 Sender (source): Creates the message to be

transmitted
 Media: Carries the message e.g. UTP, Fiber,

telephone line
 Receiver (sink): Receives the message.

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6

 The sender and receiver in data

communications are usually computer
terminals, peripheral devices like
printers, plotters, disks etc

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 7

 The term communication can be defined as the

process of transferring messages between entities.
Based on what these two entities are, there are three
basic types of communication:
I. Human-to-Human
II. Computer-to-computer
III. Human-to-Computer

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8

 In all the three cases, three basic elements

can be identified.
 The source (the sender)

 The media (the channel)

 The destination (the receiver)

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 1.3 Fundamentals of Information
Transmission media and coding
9

 A message should first be encoded in such

a way that it can be transmitted through a
channel (medium), it is then transmitted,
and finally, it is decoded into a form that
can be understood by the destination at the
other end. This holds true for voice
communication, or data communication

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10

n
t i natio
Des
ding
Deco
n
sm issio
Tran
ding
Enco
d er
Se n

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11

 Data communication involves transporting

data from one point to another. This is an
instance of computer-to-computer
communication, i.e., both the source and the
destination are computer devices, and the
transmission media may be telephone lines,
satellite links, microwave links, etc.

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 Transmission Medium
12

Simplex :
 Communication can take place in only one

direction like one-way traffic. Devices

connected to such a circuit are either a send-
only or a receive only device e.g a line
printer. This is very inadequate because the
sender needs an acknowledgement, control
or error signal.
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 Simplex
13

Sender Receiver

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14

 HALF-DUPLEX: transmits data in both

directions but only in one direction at a
time. It can alternatively send and receive
data. It requires two wires. It is good for
voice communication because only one
person is supposed to speak at a time.

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15

 Half-duplex

Sender Receiver
(Sender )

(Receiver)

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16

 FULL DUPLEX:
 It allows information to flow simultaneously in
both directions on the transmission path. It is an
advantage over half-duplex which requires the lines
to be turned-around each time the direction is
reversed and half duplex is unacceptable in some
applications which require simultaneous
transmission in both directions.

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17

 Full-duplex

Sender Receiver
and and
Receiver Sender

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 1.4: Network Topologies
18

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19

 The following four types of physical

topologies are frequently used in
computer networking:
1.Star 2. Bus 3. Ring 4. Hybrid
 A LAN is a high-speed communications system
designed to link computers and other data processing
devices together within a small geographic area such as
a workgroup, department, or a single floor of a
multistory building. Several LANs can also be
interconnected within a building or campus of buildings
to extend connectivity.

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 1. Bus Topology
20

 In a bus topology, all devices attach to the same

transmission medium. The medium has a physical
beginning and end. All buses are implemented using
electrical cable, usually coax, and the ends of the
cable must be terminated with a terminating resistor
that matches the impedance of the cable. The
terminating resistor prevents data reflections from
coming across as data corruption. The bus is
considered a multipoint system because all devices
tap into the same backbone cable.

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21

 An important characteristic to remember in bus

topologies is that all data signals are broadcast
throughout the bus structure. In the following diagram,
if node B sends a signal to node C, the signal
propagates for the length of the cable and is seen by
nodes A and D as well. It is necessary to have an
addressing mechanism so that each node understands
which messages it is to receive and which to ignore.

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22

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 Benefits of Bus topology
23

 Cabling costs are minimized because of

the common trunk.

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 Disadvantages of Bus topology
24

 Difficult to trouble shoot because no

central distribution points exist.
 Cable breaks can disable the entire

segment because they remove the

required termination from each of the two
cable fragments.
 Example: Ethernet, (10Base2)

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 2. Star Topology
25

In a star topology all stations are wired to a central

wiring concentrator called a hub. Similar to a bus
topology, packets sent from one station to
another are repeated to all ports on the hub. This
allows all stations to see each packet sent on the
network, but only the station a packet is
addressed to pays attention to it.

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26

 The diagram illustrates a star topology LAN -- which

is a more robust topology than the bus topology. In a
star topology, each station is connected to a central
wiring concentrator, or hub, by an individual length of
twisted pair cable. The cable is connected to the
station's NIC at one end and to a port on the hub at the
other. The hubs are placed in wiring closets centrally
located in a building.

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27

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 Advantages of Stars topology
28

 Most modern cabling systems are designed in a star

physical topology. The benefits of the star topology
are:
 Each device is isolated on its own cable.
 It is a reliable network and easy to modify
 Easy to add new workstation.
 A node can fail without affecting other nodes

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29
Advantage cont…
 The hub or switch is slightly more expensive
 All data goes through the central point, which can
be equipped with diagnostic devices that make it
easy to trouble shoot and manage the network.
 Hierarchical organization allows isolation of traffic
on the channel.

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30
Disadvantages of Star topology

 Because point-to-point wiring is utilized

for each node, more cable is required.
 Hub failures results in a shutdown of the

entire network

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31
3. Ring Topology
 The ring topology is a physical, closed
loop consisting of point-to-point links.
In the diagram, you can see how each
node on the ring acts as a repeater. It
receives a transmission from the
previous node and amplifies it before
passing it on.
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32

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33
Benefits of Ring topology
 Ring topology has the following
advantage:
 Each repeater duplicates the data signals

so that very little signal degradation

occurs.

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 Disadvantages of Ring topology
34

 Ring topology has the following disadvantages:

 A break in the ring can disable the entire network. Many
ring designs incorporate extra cabling that can be
switched in if a primary cable fails.
 Because each node must have the capability of
functioning as a repeater, the networking devices tend to
be more expensive.

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 4. Hybrid Topology
35

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36

 The hybrid topology scheme combines

multiple topologies into one large topology.
The hybrid network is common in large
wide-area networks. Because each topology
has its own strengths and weaknesses,
several different types can be combined for
maximum effectiveness.
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 Benefits of Hybrid topology
37

 Hybrid topology has the following advantages:

 One company can combine the benefits of several
different types of topologies.
 Workgroup efficiency and traffic can be
customized

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 Disadvantages of Hybrid
38
topology

 The disadvantages of hybrid topology

include the following:
 Devices on one topology cannot be

placed into another topology without

some hardware changes

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39

1.5: Host Connectivity

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 A. Peer-to-Peer Networks
40

 This section covers peer-to-peer networks. When LAN

and WAN technologies are used, many computers are
interconnected to provide services to their users. To
accomplish this, networked computers take on
different roles or functions in relation to each other.
Some types of applications require computers to
function as equal partners. Other types of applications
distribute their work so that one computer functions to
serve a number of others in an unequal relationship.

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41

 Two computers generally use request and response

protocols to communicate with each other.

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42

 One computer issues a request for a service, and a second

computer receives and responds to that request.
 The requestor acts like a client and the responder acts like
a server. In a peer-to-peer network, networked computers
act as equal partners, or peers.
 As peers, each computer can take on the client function or
the server function. Computer A may request for a file
from Computer B, which then sends the file to Computer
A. Computer A acts like the client and Computer B acts
like the server. At a later time, Computers A and B can
reverse roles.

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43

 In a peer-to-peer network:
 individual users control their own resources.
 The users may decide to share certain files with other
users.
 The users may also require passwords before they allow
others to access their resources. Since individual users
make these decisions, there is no central point of control
or administration in the network. In addition, individual
users must back up their own systems to be able to
recover from data loss in case of failures. When a
computer acts as a server, the user of that machine may
experience reduced performance as the machine serves the
requests made by other systems.
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44

 Peer-to-peer networks are relatively easy to install and

operate. No additional equipment is necessary beyond a
suitable operating system installed on each computer.
Since users control their own resources, no dedicated
administrators are needed.

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45

 As networks grow, peer-to-peer relationships become

increasingly difficult to coordinate. A peer-to-peer
network works well with ten or fewer computers. Since
peer-to-peer networks do not scale well, their efficiency
decreases rapidly as the number of computers on the
network increases. Also, individual users control access to
the resources on their computers, which means security
may be difficult to maintain. The client/server model of
networking can be used to overcome the limitations of the
peer-to-peer network

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 B. Client/Server Networks
46

 In a client/server arrangement, network services are

located on a dedicated computer called a server. The
server responds to the requests of clients. The server is a
central computer that is continuously available to respond
to requests from clients for file, print, application, and
other services. Most network operating systems adopt the
form of a client/server relationship. Typically, desktop
computers function as clients and one or more computers
with additional processing power, memory, and
specialized software function as servers.

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47

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48

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49

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50

 Servers are designed to handle requests from many

clients simultaneously. Before a client can access the
server resources, the client must be identified and be
authorized to use the resource. Each client is assigned
an account name and password that is verified by an
authentication service. The authentication service
guards access to the network. With the centralization of
user accounts, security, and access control, server-based
networks simplify the administration of large networks.

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51

 The concentration of network resources such as files, printers, and

applications on servers also makes it easier to back-up and maintain
the data. Resources can be located on specialized, dedicated servers
for easier access. Most client/server systems also include ways to
enhance the network with new services that extend the usefulness of
the network.
 The centralized functions in a client/server network has substantial
advantages and some disadvantages. Although a centralized server
enhances security, ease of access, and control, it introduces a single
point of failure into the network. Without an operational server, the
network cannot function at all. Servers require a trained, expert staff
member to administer and maintain. Server systems also require
additional hardware and specialized software that add to the cost

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peer-to-
Peer and Client/Server Networks
52

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 Advantage and disadvantage cont…
53

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54

1.6: Basic Data Communication

Hardware Devices

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 Symbols for Networking Devices
55

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 Devices cont…
56

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 1.6.1. NIC /Network Interface
Card/Adapter Card:
57

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 NIC cont…
58

 A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides network

communication capabilities to and from a PC.
 On desktop computer systems, it is a printed circuit
board that resides in a slot on the motherboard and
provides an interface connection to the network media.
 On laptop computer systems, it is commonly integrated
into the laptop or available on a small, credit card-sized
PCMCIA card.
 PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association.

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 NIC cont…
59

 The function of a NIC is to connect a host

device to the network medium. A NIC is a
printed circuit board that fits into the
expansion slot on the motherboard or
peripheral device of a computer. The NIC is
also referred to as a network adapter. On
laptop or notebook computers a NIC is the
size of a credit card.

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 NIC and Modem Installation
60

 Modem – Modulator/Demodulator
 Used to convert data from digital to analog and vice versa
 Modems could be internal or external
 For dialup networking we use modems
 NICs must be installed before a PC can communicate with other
PCs on a network
 Situations that require NIC installation include the following:
 Installation of a NIC on a PC that does not already have one
 Replacement of a malfunctioning or damaged NIC
 Upgrade from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100/1000-Mbps NIC
 Change to a different type of NIC, such as wireless
 Installation of a secondary, or backup, NIC for network security reasons

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 1.6.2. Hub
61

 Hubs are actually multi port repeaters

 Change the network topology from a linear bus
to a star
 Three basic types:
1. Passive – no boost, no clean and no power
2. Active - needs power to amplify the incoming
signal
3. Intelligent - microprocessor chip and diagnostic
capabilities

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 1.6.3. Repeaters

 A repeater regenerates and retimes network

signals at the bit level to allow them to travel
a longer distance
 Too much latency on the LAN increases the

number of late collisions and makes the LAN

less efficient

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 1.6.4: Bridges

 Bridges and switches operate at the Data Link layer.

 When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination

MAC address is looked up in the bridge table to determine whether
to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another segment. This
decision process occurs as follows:
 If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the
bridge will not send the frame onto other segments. This process is
known as filtering.
 If the destination device is on a different segment, the bridge
forwards the frame to the appropriate segment.
 If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge
forwards the frame to all segments except the one on which it was
received. This process is known as flooding. 63 04/01/25
 1.6.5: Switches
64

A switch has many ports with many network segments

connected to them.
A switch chooses the port to which the destination device is
connected.
Alleviates congestion in LANs by reducing the size of collision
domains, reducing traffic and increasing bandwidth.
Two basic operations:
1. Switching data frames.
2. Build and maintain switching tables and search for loops.

Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges and

can support new functionality, such as virtual LANs.
Switches is used to divide the network into collision
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domains
 Access layer switches
65

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 1.6.6: Router
66

 A router is a special type of computer. It has the

same basic components as a standard desktop PC.
It has a CPU, memory, a system bus, and various
input/output interfaces. However, routers are
designed to perform some very specific functions
that are not typically performed by desktop
computers. For example, routers connect and allow
communication between two networks and
determine the best path for data to travel through
the connected networks.

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 Router cont…
67

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68

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Routers Connected by WAN
Technologies
69

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 1.6.7: Insulators, Conductors ,Semiconductors and
70
Cables

•Attenuation is important in relation to networks.

•Attenuation refers to the resistance to the flow of electrons and
explains why a signal becomes degraded as it travels along the
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conduit
71

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 Current
72

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 Cable Specifications
73

Three Parameters are required:

•Speed
•Transmission Type – Digital (Baseband) or Analog
(Broadband)
•Max Length – how far can the signal travel before getting
attenuated
•The following Ethernet specifications relate to cable type:
•10BASE-T = 10Mbps, Baseband, T= twisted pair
•10BASE5 = 10Mbps, Baseband, <500meters
•10BASE2 = 10Mbps, Baseband, <200meters
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 Coaxial Cable
74

 The coaxial cable design has been adapted for different

purposes. Coax is an important type of cable that is
used in wireless and cable access technologies. Coax
cables are used to attach antennas to wireless devices.
The coaxial cable carries radio frequency (RF) energy
between the antennas and the radio equipment.
 Coax is also the most widely used media for
transporting high radio frequency signals over wire,
especially cable television signals. Traditional cable
television, exclusively transmitting in one direction,
was composed completely of coax cable.
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 Coaxial Cable
75

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 Coaxial …
76

 They come in two basic sizes

 Thicknet
 Has larger diameter
 Good noise rejection characteristics
 Longer cable run
 Difficult to lay the cable
 It is rarely used in LANs
 Thinnet
 Smaller diameter
 Relatively flexible, easier to lay the cable
 Poor noise rejection
 Supports lower bandwidth
 No longer in use
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 Twisted pair
77

 This type of copper cable comes in in

different formats:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 STP
78

 STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires

within the cable as well as the individual wire
pairs. STP provides better noise protection
than UTP cabling, however at a significantly
higher price

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 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
79

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 UTP
80

 UTP is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of

networks.
 each pair of wires is twisted around each other.
 This type of cable relies on the cancellation effect
produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal
degradation caused by EMI and RFI.
 Category 5e is the cable most frequently
recommended and implemented in installations.
 Category 6 UTP cables are also available

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 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
81

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 The figure shows some commonly used copper media and
connectors.
82

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 UTP
83

 Advantages
 is easy to install
 Is less expensive than other types of networking
media.
 Has small external diameter
 Disadvantages
 Error prone
 Commonly used connector for LANs is an RJ-45
connector,

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 UTP connections
84

 The transmit pin of the source device needs to

ultimately connect to the receiving pin of the
destination device
 There are three types of connections that are used
to connect different devices
 Straight Through cables
 Crossover Cables
 Rollover cables

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 Straight Through cables
85

 Are used to connect dissimilar devices

 Switch/Hub to PC
 Switch/Hub to Router
 Straight Through cable
pin out

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 Cross over cable
86

 Connects
 Hub to hub
 Switch to switch
 PC to PC
 PC to Router??
 Pin out:

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UTP implementation
 An RJ-45 connector for UTP cable
 RJ stand for Registered Jack
 45 refers to the specific wiring sequence
 A transceiver converts one type of connection to another
Example: AUI to RJ-45, coax, or fibre optic connector

Crossover Straight-through

Switch to router
Switch to switch Router to router
Switch to PC or server
Switch to hub PC to PC
Hub to PC or server
Hub to hub Router to PC ???
X to no X
87 04/01/25
 Rollover Cable
88

 Connects
 A PC with console port of a router
 Also called Console Cable
 Pin-out:

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 Optical Media
89

 Optical fibers transmit light rays at different

wavelengths

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 Optical Media…
90

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 Fiber Optic Cables
91

 Light rays are transmitted through the core

 Two types of cable
 Multimode and Singlemode fiber cables

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 Fiber Cable
92
 Wireless Media
93

 Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals at

radio and microwave frequencies that represent the
binary digits of data communications.
 As a networking medium, wireless is not restricted
to conductors or pathways, as are copper and fiber
media.

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 Wireless Devices
94

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 Wireless cont… [ detail chapter 3]
95

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 Wave, Analog and Digital signal


A wave is a disturbance that propagates, carrying energy
 A disturbance that travels through matter or space.

A way in which energy moves from one place to another .

 Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves

96
Amplitude and Frequency

97
Analog Signal

98 04/01/25
 Digital and Analog Bandwidth
99

Bandwidth = The width or carrying capacity of a

communications circuit.

Digital bandwidth = the number of bits per second (bps) the

circuit can carry
 measure in bps

Analog bandwidth = the range of frequencies the circuit can

carry
 used in analog communications such as voice (telephones)

 measured in Hertz (Hz), cycles per second

 voice-grade telephone lines have a 3,100 Hz bandwidth

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 Digital and Analog Bandwidth
DTE DCE
PSTN
Dial-up network
digital analog

Modulation

DTE DCE
PSTN
Dial-up network
digital analog

Demodulation

Digital Signals
GOLDMAN: DATACOMM
 digital signal = a signal whose state consists of discrete elements such as high or
FIG.02-14

low, on or off

Analog Signals
 analog signal = a signal which is “analogous” to sound waves

 telephone lines are designed to carry analog signals

100 04/01/25
 Transmission Terminology
(whatis.com)
Broadband transmission =
 In general, broadband refers to telecommunication in which a wide band of frequencies is

available to transmit information.

 Because a wide band of frequencies is available, information can be multiplexed and sent

on many different frequencies or channels within the band concurrently, allowing more
information to be transmitted in a given amount of time (much as more lanes on a
highway allow more cars to travel on it at the same time).

Baseband transmission
Describing a telecommunication system in which information is carried in digital (or analog)
form on a single unmultiplexed signal channel on the transmission medium. This usage
pertains to a baseband network such as Ethernet and token ring local area networks.

Narrowband transmission
 Generally, narrowband describes telecommunication that carries voice information in a

narrow band of frequencies.

 More specifically, the term has been used to describe a specific frequency range set aside

by the U.S. Fcc for mobile or radio services, including paging systems, from 50 cps to 64
Kbps.
101 04/01/25
 Attenuation and insertion loss on
copper media

 Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude over

the length of a link.
 Long cable lengths and high signal frequencies
contribute to greater signal attenuation.
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 Sources of noise on copper media

 Crosstalk involves the transmission of signals from one wire to a nearby

wire.
 When voltages change on a wire, electromagnetic energy is generated.
 This energy radiates outward from the transmitting wire like a radio signal
from a transmitter.
 Adjacent wires in the cable act like antennas, receiving the transmitted energy,
which interferes with data on those wires.
103 04/01/25
 Sources of noise on copper media

 Twisted-pair cable is designed to take advantage of the effects of crosstalk in

order to minimize noise.
 In twisted-pair cable, a pair of wires is used to transmit one signal.
 The wire pair is twisted so that each wire experiences similar crosstalk.
 Because a noise signal on one wire will appear identically on the other wire,
this noise be easily detected and filtered at the receiver.

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 1.7: Importance of bandwidth
 Bandwidth - The amount of information that can flow through a
network connection in a given period of time.

105 04/01/25
Analogies

106 04/01/25
 Measurement

 In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits

per second (bps).
 Bandwidth is the measure of how much information,
or bits, can flow from one place to another in a given
amount of time, or seconds.
107 04/01/25
 Throughput
 Throughput - The amount of data transferred from one place to another or
processed in a specified amount of time. (wikipedia.com)
 Often far less than the maximum possible digital bandwidth of the medium that is
being used. Internetworking devices

The following are some of the factors that determine throughput:

 Type of data being transferred
 Network topology
 Number of users on the network
 User computer
 Server computer
 Power conditions
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End of Chapter One



 Thank You !

04/01/25