Unit 2

CONVERTERS IN POWER
GRID
 Syllabus

Compensation : shunt, series, shunt – series, series – series –

HVDC:12-pulse converter based HVDC systems - HVDC
light - HVDC PLUS (Power universal link) - Multipulse and
multilevel VSC based flexible HVDC systems – low frequency
high voltage AC transmission – solid state transformer.
 Compensation
Necessity for compensation:

1. Maintain the voltage profiles at each end sides: In large transmission network,
power flow in some of the transmission lines are well below their normal limits
and others overloaded

2. Proper distribution of power at congestion is needed: Because of raise in load

demand, generation and transmission system become overloaded.

3. Transmission networks have not reached in some eco-sensitive areas

4. Transmission losses have to reduce

1. Series compensation

• Series compensation is basically a powerful tool to improve the performance of

EHV lines.

• It is the method of improving the system voltage by connecting a capacitor in

series with the transmission line. In other words, in series compensation, reactive
power is inserter in series with the transmission line for improving the impedance
of the system.

• It consists of capacitors connected in series with the line at suitable locations.

Transmission line with series compensation
Location of series capacitor

• The location of the series capacitor depends on the economic and technical
considerations of the line.

• The series capacitor may be located at the sending end, receiving end or at the
center of the line.

• In each case, a special system study concerning load flow, stability, transient
overvoltage, protection requirements, system voltage profile, etc. is necessary
before the optimal location is chosen.

• Sometimes they are located at two or more points along the line.
Advantages of series compensation

• Increase in power transfer capability

• Improvement in system stability

• Load division among parallel line

• Control of voltage

Disadvantages of series compensation

• Increase in fault current

• Mal operation of distance relay-if the degree of compensation and location is not proper.

• High recovery voltage of lines-across the circuit breaker contacts and is harmful.
Protection scheme for series capacitor

• When the fault or overload occurs the large current will flow across the series
capacitor of the line.

• Thus, the excessive voltage drop occurs across the transmission line

• For protecting the capacitors from such abnormal voltages, spark gaps and surge
diverters are connected to the capacitor terminal.

• A circuit breaker is also connected in parallel with it.

Examples of series compensation

i. Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)

ii. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by

a thyristor-controlled reactor

iii. Thyristor-controlled series reactor (TCSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a

thyristor-controlled reactor

iv. Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by a

thyristor-switched reactor

v. Thyristor-switched series reactor (TSSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a

thyristor-switched reactor
i. Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)

• The static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) employs a voltage source

converter (VSC) connected in series to a transmission line through a transformer
or multilevel inverters.

• The SSSC works like the STATCOM, except that it is serially connected instead
of a shunt.

• The SSSC operates like a controllable series capacitor and series inductor.
• The primary difference is
that its injected voltage is
not related to the line
intensity and can be
managed independently.

• This feature allows the

SSSC to work
satisfactorily with high
loads as well as with lower
loads.
ii. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

• It is a capacitive reactance compensator. It consists of

a series capacitor bank which connected in parallel
with a thyristor controlled reactor that provides a
smooth variable series capacitive reactance.

• The total impedance of the system can be varied by

changing the conduction angle of the thyristors and
hence the circuit becomes either inductive or
capacitive. If the total circuit impedance is inductive,
the fault current is limited by this controller.
iii. Thyristor-controlled series reactor (TCSR)

• It is an inductive reactance compensator which consists

of a series reactor in parallel with thyristor switched
reactor. This controller provides a smooth variable
inductive reactance.

• When the thyristors firing angle is 180 0, the reactor

stops conducting and hence the uncontrolled reactor
only is in series with the line that acts as a fault current
limiter. If the firing angle is below 180 0, the net (or
overall) inductance decreases, thereby voltage is
controlled in the network.
iv. Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC)

• It consists of a number of capacitors, each shunted by an appropriately rated

bypass valve composed of a string of reverse parallel connected thyristors in
series.
• The degree of series compensation is controlled in a step-like manner by
increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitors inserter.

• A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed by turning on the

corresponding thyristor valve.

• A thyristor valve commutates “naturally”, that is, it turns off when the current
crosses zero.

• Thus a capacitor can be inserted into the line by the thyristor valve only at the
zero crossings of the line current.
v. Thyristor-switched series reactor (TSSR)

• Similar to TCSR, TSSR is also an inductive reactance compensator but it provides

the stepwise control.

• This controller switches thyristors such that they are either fully ON or fully OFF
in order to achieve stepped series inductance.
2. Shunt compensation

• The general purpose of shunt compensation is to keep the voltage rises down
during light or no-load conditions.

• In shunt compensation, power system is connected in shunt (parallel) with the

FACTS. It works as a controllable current source.

• Shunt compensation is of two types:

1. Shunt capacitive compensation
2. Shunt inductive compensation
Transmission line with shunt compensation
i. Shunt capacitive compensation

• This method is used to improve the power factor.

• Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags
because of lagging load current.

• To compensate, a shunt capacitor is connected which draws current leading the

source voltage.

• The net result is improvement in power factor.

• Thus the capacitors provide leading Var to partially meet reactive power demand of
the load to control the voltage.

• If XC=1/ꞷC be the reactance of the shunt capacitor then the reactive power
generated of leading Var supplied by the capacitor:

QC = = ꞷC

where, is the magnitude of receiving end voltage.

ii. Shunt inductive compensation

• This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when there is
very low load at the receiving end.

• Due to very low, or no load – very low current flows through the transmission line.
Shunt capacitance in the transmission line causes voltage amplification (Ferranti
Effect).

• The receiving end voltage may become double the sending end voltage (generally in
case of very long transmission lines).

• To compensate, shunt inductors are connected across the transmission line.

• If XL= ꞷL be the reactance of the shunt reactor (inductor) then the reactive Var
absorbed by the shunt reactor:

QL = = /ꞷL

where, is the magnitude of receiving end voltage.

• To control the receiving end voltage generally one shunt reactor is installed and
switched in during the light load condition.

• To meet the variable reactive power demands requisite number of shunt capacitors
are switched in, in addition to the shunt reactor, which results in adjustable reactive
power absorption by the combination.
Examples of shunt compensation

i. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

ii. Static VAR compensator (SVC).

• Most common SVCs are:

a. Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): reactor is connected in series with a

bidirectional thyristor valve. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled.
Equivalent reactance is varied continuously.
b. Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC): capacitor is connected in series with a
bidirectional thyristor valve. Thyristor is either in zero- or full- conduction.
Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner.

c. Mechanically-switched capacitor (MSC): capacitor is switched by circuit-

breaker. It aims at compensating steady state reactive power. It is switched only
a few times a day.

d. Thyristor-switched reactor (TSR): Same as TCR but thyristor is either in zero-

or full- conduction. Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner.
1. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

• The device use synchronous voltage sources for generating and absorbing reactive power.

• A synchronous voltage source (SVS) is constructed using a voltage source

converter(VSC).

• Such a shunt compensating device is called a static compensator or STATCOM.

• A STATCOM usually contains an SVS that is driven from a dc storage capacitor and SVS
is connected to the ac system through an interface transformer.

• The transformer steps the ac system voltage down such that the voltage rating of the SVS
switches are within specified limit.
• STATCOM is a shunt-connected device injecting
dynamically inductive or capacitive reactive power
into the transmission grid.

• Its main functions are voltage stability and reactive

power control of transmission systems and system
buses.

• Basically STATCOM system is comprised of power

converters, set of coupling reactors or a step-up
transformer and a controller
Advantages of STATCOM

• The reactive component used in the STATCOM are much smaller than those in the
SVC.

• The output current of STATCOM can be controlled up to the rated maximum

capacitive or inductive range.

• Reduction of harmonic filter capacity.

• Better transient response of the order of quarter cycle.

• Reduction of capacity of semiconductor power converter and capacitor bank to

one half of those for the conventional SVC.
2. Static VAR compensators (SVCs)

• A Static VAR compensator is an electrical device for providing reactive power on

transmission networks.

• The term “static” refers to the fact that the SVC has not moving parts (other than
circuit breakers and disconnects, which do not move under normal SVC
operation).

• The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the

system closer to unity power factor.
• If the power system’s reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use
reactors to consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage.

• Under inductive (lagging) condition, the capacitor banks are automatically

switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage.

• An ideal static reactive power compensator must be capable of step-less adjustment

of reactive power an unlimited range(lagging and leading) without any time delay.

• They are a fast and reliable means of controlling voltage of lines and system’s
buses.
Advantages of SVC

• Static VAR compensation is not done at line voltage; a bank of transformers steps
the transmission voltage(for example, 230 kV) down to a much lower level (for
example, 9.5 kV). This reduces the size and number of components.

• They are more reliable

• Faster in operation

• Smoother control and more flexibility can be provided with the help of thyristors.
a. Thyristor controlled Reactor (TCR)

• The controlling element is the thyristor controller consisting of two opposite-poled

thyristors which conduct every half cycle of the supply frequency.

• Currently available thyristors can block voltage upto 4000-9000 V and conduct current
upto 3000-6000 A.

• Practically 10-20 thyristors are connected in series to meet the required blocking voltage.

• The current in the reactor can be controlled by the method of firing delay angle control.

• The closure of the thyristor valve is delayed with respect to the peak of the applied voltage
in each half-cycle.
b. Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC)

• In this scheme, TSC’s are used with TCR’s.

• The TCR’s and capacitance change in discrete steps.

• The susceptance is adjusted by controlling the number of parallel capacitors.

• The capacitors serve as filters for harmonics when only the reactor is switched.

• Normally a relatively small surge current limiting reactor is used in series with the
TSC branch. This is needed primarily to limit the surge current in the thyristor
valve under abnormal condition (switching at wrong time)
Combined TCR/TSC compensators

• A continuously variable reactive power can be achieved by using

a TCR in combination with TSC.

• By using a different combination, an SVC can get various

requirements to absorb/supply reactive power from/to the power
system.

• Furthermore full control of both inductive and capacitive parts of

the compensator is obtained. This is a very advantageous feature
permitting optimum performance during large disturbances in the
power system (e.g. line faults, load rejection etc).
c. Mechanically Switched capacitors (MSC)

In this scheme, MSC’s are also used with TCR’s.

Uses conventional mechanical or SF6 switches instead of thyristors to switch the

capacitors.

More economical when there are a large number of capacitors to be switched than
using TSCs.

The speed of switching is however longer and this may affect transient stability.

This method is suitable for steady load conditions, where reactive power requirements
are predictable.
 12 pulse rectifier bridge
• For high voltage applications, two or more converters can be connected in series
to share the voltage and also to improve the power factor.

• Although better than single-phase rectifiers or three-phase half-wave

rectifiers, six-pulse rectifier circuits still produce considerable harmonic distortion
on both the AC and DC connections.

• For high-power applications such as high-voltage dc transmission, a 12-pulse

output is generally required to reduce the output ripples and to increase the ripple
frequencies.
12-Pulse Bridge rectifier
• A twelve-pulse bridge consists of two six-pulse bridge circuits connected in
series, with their AC connections fed from a supply transformer that produces
a 30° phase shift between the two bridges.

• This cancels many of the characteristic harmonics the six-pulse bridges

produce.

• The 30-degree phase shift is usually achieved by using a transformer with two
sets of secondary windings, one in star (wye) connection and one in delta
connection.
• Sometimes the advantages of increasing the pulse number are offset by the
complexity of the transformer connection and by the difficulties of maintaining
balance in the system.

• This happens when two Twelve pulse converter are interconnected to form a 24
pulse one.

• Such difficulties do not encourage increasing the pulse number beyond 12 or at

most 24.
• The sequence of triggering of the SCRs and their conduction period are given in
the tabular column shown below:
SCR Conducting sequence
• The output voltage
and the sequence of
triggering of the
thyristors along
with their
conduction period
are shown in the
waveforms
Three phase converter transformer

• The transformer used in the twelve pulse converter will be normally connected with
primary Y-Y and secondary is Y-Δ windings.

• The main purpose of this is to provide a 30° phase shift, which is can be able to
provide 12 pulse output as well as to provide isolation between the two systems.
Advantages of 12 pulse rectifier
• The lower order harmonics such as 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc are eliminated in the 12-
pulse operation of VSC.
• Ripple content in the output waveform of the 12-pulse converter is comparatively
less as than the 6-pulse converter.
• The total harmonic distortion (THD) is less in 12-pulse operation.

• The output voltage waveform is closer to the sine wave in the 12-pulse operation
of VSC.
 Multilevel Inverters

• A multilevel inverter is a power electronic device that is capable of providing

desired alternating voltage level at the output using multiple lower-level DC
voltages as an input.

• The different types of multilevel inverters are

1. Diode-clamped inverter

2. Capacitor-clamped inverter

3. Cascaded multilevel inverter

Advantages of multilevel inverters

• Reduced harmonic distortion: Multilevel converters not only can generate the
output voltages with very low distortion, but also can reduce the change in voltage
(dv/dt) stresses, therefore electromagnetic compatibility(EMC) problems can be
reduced.

• Common-mode(CM) voltage: Multilevel converters produce smaller CM voltage;

therefore, the stress in the bearings of a motor connected to a multilevel motor
drive can be reduced.

• Input current: Multilevel converters can draw input current with low distortion.
• Switching frequency: Multilevel converters can operate at both fundamental switching
frequency and high switching frequency PWM. It should be noted that lower
switching frequency usually means lower switching losses.

Applications of multilevel inverter

• High voltage and medium voltage motor drives
• High voltage DC transmission
• Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)
• Traction
• Active filtering

• Utility interface for renewable energy systems

1. Diode-clamped inverter

• The most commonly used multilevel topology is the diode clamped inverter, in
which the diode is used as the clamping device to clamp the dc bus voltage so as
to achieve steps in the output voltage.

• Thus, the main concept of this inverter is to use diodes to limit the power devices
voltage stress.

• The voltage over each capacitor and each switch is Vdc.

• An n level inverter needs (n-1) voltage sources, 2(n-1) switching devices and
(n-1) (n-2) diodes.
• By increasing the number of voltage levels the quality
of the output voltage is improved and the voltage
waveform becomes closer to sinusoidal waveform.

• The figure shows a three-level diode-clamped converter

in which the dc bus consists of two capacitors, C1, C2.

• For dc-bus voltage Vdc, the voltage across each

capacitor is Vdc/2 and each device voltage stress will
be limited to one capacitor voltage level Vdc/2 through
clamping diodes.
• To explain how the staircase voltage is synthesized, the neutral point n is
considered as the output phase voltage reference point.

• There are three switch combinations to synthesize three-level voltages

across a and n.

1. Voltage level Van= Vdc/2, turn on the switches S1 and S2.

2. Voltage level Van= 0, turn on the switches S2 and S1′.

3. Voltage level Van= - Vdc/2 turn on the switches S1′,S2′

• Figure shows a five-level diode-clamped converter in
which the dc bus consists of four capacitors, C1, C2,
C3, and C4.

• For dc-bus voltage Vdc, the voltage across each

capacitor is Vdc/4 and each device voltage stress will
be limited to one capacitor voltage level Vdc/4 through
clamping diodes.

• To synthesize 5-level output phase voltage,switching

sequence as given in table 1. State condition 1 means
switch ON and 0 means switch OFF.
Switching states in one leg of the Five-level
Diode clamped Inverter
Output waveform for a five-level diode-clamped multilevel inverter
Advantages of diode-clamped multilevel inverter

• The capacitance of the capacitors used is low.

• Back-to-back inverters can be used.

• Capacitors are precharged.

• At fundamental frequency, efficiency is high.

Disadvantages of diode-clampes multilevel inverter

• Clamping diodes are increased with the increase of each level.

• The DC level will discharge when control and monitoring are not precise.
Applications of diode-clamped multilevel inverters

• The most common application of diode clamped multilevel inverter is when a

high voltage Dc and Ac transmission lines are interfaced.

• This can also be used in variable speed control of high power drives.

• Static variable compensation is also an application of diode clamped multilevel

inverters.
2. Capacitor-clamped inverter

• The structure of this inverter is similar to that of the diode-clamped inverter

except that instead of using clamping diodes, the inverter uses capacitors in
their place.

• The flying capacitor involves series connection of capacitor-clamped

switching cells.

• This topology has a ladder structure of dc side capacitors, where the voltage
on each capacitor differs from that of the next capacitor.
• The voltage increment between two
adjacent capacitor legs gives the size of the
voltage steps in the output waveform.

• An n-level inverter will require a total of

(n-1)×(n-2)/2 clamping capacitors per phase
leg in addition to (n-1) main dc bus
capacitors.
Three-level Flying capacitor
multilevel inverter
• The voltage levels and the arrangements
of the flying capacitors in the FCMLI
structure assures that the voltage stress
across each main device is same and is
equal to Vdc/(n-1), for an n-level
inverter.

• The voltage synthesis in a five-level

capacitor-clamped converter has more
flexibility than a diode-clamped Five-level Flying capacitor
converter multilevel inverter
• Using Figure.4(b) the voltage of the five-level phase-leg “a” output with respect to the
neutral point n (i.e.Van), can be synthesized by the following switch combinations.

1. Voltage level Van= Vdc/2, turn on all upper switches S1 - S4 .

2. Voltage level Van= Vdc/4, there are three combinations.

a. Turn on switches S1 , S2 , S3 and S1′.(Van= Vdc/2 of upper C4‟s - Vdc/4 of C1‟s).
b. Turn on switches S2 , S3 , S4 and S4′.(Van= 3Vdc/4 of upper C3‟s - Vdc/2 of C4‟s).
c. Turn on switches S1 , S3 , S4 and S3′. (Van= Vdc/2 of upper C4‟s - 3Vdc/4 or C3‟s
+ Vdc/2 of upper C„).
• 3. Voltage level Van= 0,
turn on upper switches S3 ,
S4 , and lower switch S1′,
S2′. 4. Voltage level Van= -
Vdc/4, turn on upper
switch S1 and lower
switches S1′, S2′and S3′. 5.
Voltage level Van= -Vdc/2,
turn on all lower switches
S1′, S2′, S3′ and S4′.
Component count of flying capacitor
Advantages Disadvantages

• Real as well as active power flow is • Large number of capacitors

controlled make inverter bullky

• Since more number of capacitor are used, • Inverter content is very

short duration outages and voltage sag does complicated
not affect much as load side. • Poor efficiency for real power
• Low harmonic content. transmission

• Redundancies are available to balance

different voltage levels.
3. Cascaded multilevel inverter

• The concept of this inverter is based on connecting H-bridge inverters in series to

get a sinusoidal voltage output.

• The output voltage is the sum of the voltage that is generated by each cell.

• The number of output voltage levels are 2n+1, where n is the number of cells.

• The switching angles can be chosen in such a way that the total harmonic
distortion is minimized.
• One of the advantages of this type of multilevel
inverter is that it needs less number of
components comparative to the Diode clamped
or the flying capacitor, so the price and the
weight of the inverter is less than that of the
two types.

• In a 3-level cascaded inverter each single-phase

full-bridge inverter generates three voltages at
the output: +Vdc, 0, -Vdc (zero, positive dc
voltage, and negative dc voltage).
• This is made possible by connecting the capacitors.The resulting output ac voltage
swings from -Vdc to +Vdc with three levels, -2Vdc to +2Vdc.
• Figure shows a five level cascaded H-bridge
multilevel inverter.

• The converter consists of two series connected

H-bridge cells which are fed by independent
voltage sources.

• The outputs of the H-bridge cells are connected

in series such that the synthesized voltage
waveform is the sum of all of the individual cell
outputs.
• The output voltage is given by V=V1 +V2

• where the output voltage of the first cell is labeled

V1 and the output voltage of the second cell is
denoted by V2.

• There are five level of output voltage ie 2V, V, 0, -

V, -2V.

• For 9 – level Cascaded inverter, 4 SDCSs & 4 full

bridges are required.

• Each H-Bridge unit generates quasi square

9-level phase voltage of cascaded H-bridge
waveform. multilevel inverter
Advantages Disadvantage

• Compared with Diode Clamped & Flying • It requires several separate D.C.
Capacitor Multilevel Inverter, it requires least sources thereby limiting its
number of components to produce same level applications.
inverted output. • Duty cycle for each of the voltage

• Soft switching techniques can be used to reduce level is different, this means level – 1

the switching losses & stress. d.c. sources discharges much sooner
than the level – 5 d.c. sources.
• Here packaging is possible because each level
has same structure and no extra clamping diodes • So, switching pattern must be such that

or voltage balancing capacitors. all the d.c. sources can be equally used
or charged accordingly.
Applications

• static synchronous compensators

• active filter and reactive power compensation applications

• photo voltaic power conversion

• uninterruptible power supplies

• magnetic resonance imaging

• electric and hybrid power trains.

 SPWM technique
• Sinusoidal PWM is a typical PWM
technique.

• In this PWM technique, the sinusoidal

AC voltage reference is compared with
the high-frequency triangular carrier
wave in real time to determine
switching states for each pole in
the inverter.
• The number of carrier waves varied based upon the level of outputs, for example
it requires (n-1) carrier for n levels inverter. The SPWM was based up on the
carrier wave position it is divided in to two types.

1. Level shifted PWM (carrier signals are arranged vertically)

2.Phase shifted PWM (carrier signals are arranged horizontally).