Integumentary

System

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 The Skin
• The integumentary system consists of the skin
(cutaneous membrane) and its accessory organs.
• The skin is composed of three layers of tissue:
– the outer epidermis (made of stratified squamous
epithelium)
– the middle dermis (made of fibrous connective
tissue), and
– the inner subcutaneous layer or hypodermis (made
of adipose tissue and loose connective tissue).

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• Accessory organs include:
– hair (hair root and hair shaft),
– hair follicle,
– pili arrector muscle,
– sebaceous gland,
– sudoriferous gland,
– nails, and mammary gland.

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Functions of the Integumentary System
1. Protection
A) chemical factors in the skin:
• Sebum (or oil) - from the sebaceous glands is slightly
acidic, retarding bacterial colonization on the skin
surface.
• Sweat - from the sudoriferous glands is slightly
hypertonic and can flush off most bacteria on the skin
surface.
• Melanin (skin pigment) - from melanocytes avoids
excessive ultraviolet radiation from penetrating the skin
layers .
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B) Physical factors in the skin:
• Stratified squamous epithelium in the epidermis
layer provides a large number of layers of cells,
preventing most bacteria invasion.
• Keratinized cells in the stratum corneum layer of the
epidermis provides a physical barrier against most
invasion.
C) Biological factor in the skin:
• White blood cells such as macrophages destroy most
invaded bacteria and other foreign substances.

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2. Excretion
• waste materials such as ammonia, urea, and excessive salt
are eliminated from sweating.
3. Body temperature regulation
• Sweating by the sweat glands promotes evaporation,
resulting in a loss of excessive body heat.
• Vasoconstriction by arterioles (small arteries) in the dermis
layer provides a smaller surface area in the blood vessels,
resulting in less heat loss .
• Vasodilatation by arterioles in the dermis layer provides a
larger surface area in the blood vessels, resulting in greater
heat loss .
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4. Cutaneous sensation
• Nerve receptors in the dermis layer detect sensations
such as heat, cold, pain, pressure, and touch,
allowing the body to be aware of these stimuli.
5. Vitamin-D synthesis
• Ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight activates a series
of chemical reactions in the epidermis layer, resulting
in the synthesis of vitamin-D from the modification of
cholesterol for the absorption of calcium.

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 Types of Skin

1. Thin Skin
• 1-2 mm on most of the body and 0.5 mm in eyelids
• Hairy
• Covers all parts of the body except palms of hands
and soles of feet
• Thin epidermis and lacks stratum lucidum
• Lacks dermal papillae
• Has more sebaceous glands
• Fewer sweat glands, sensory receptors than thick
skin
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2. Thick Skin
• up to 6 mm thick on palms of hands and soles of feet
• Hairless
• Covers palms of hands and soles of feet
• Thick epidermis and a distinct stratum lucidum
• Epidermal ridges are present due to well-developed,
numerous dermal papillae.
• Lacks sebaceous glands, has more sweat glands
• Sense receptors are also more densely packed.

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 Layers of the Skin
1. Epidermis
• Being made of stratified squamous epithelium, there
is no blood vessels to supply nutrients to its cells.
• Nutrients from the arterioles in the dermis layer
diffuse upward into the epidermis layer, especially to
the stratum basale and spinosum layers.

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• Cuboidal cells at the stratum basale layer receive
most of the nourishment.
– These cells reproduce rapidly using mitosis.
– New daughter cells will be pushed upward into higher
layers, and they become flattened as they move upward .

• Squamous cells moving upward in the epidermis

receive less and less nutrients as diffusion distance
increases.
– By the time they form stratum corneum, the cells
are dead and will be shed off from the skin .

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 Types of Cells in the epidermis

I. Keratinocytes
• 90 % of epidermal cells are keratinized
• contains keratin (fibrous protein)
• protects and waterproofs the skin
II. Melanocytes
• 8% of the epidermal cells produces melanin
• contributes to skin color and absorbs UV light

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III. Langerhans cells
• Arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the
epidermis
• Constitute small portion of epidermal cells
• Participate in immune responses
• Easily damaged by UV light
IV. Merkel cells
• Least numerous of the epidermal cells
• Found in the deepest layer of the epidermis
• They function in sensation of touch

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 Layers of the epidermis
A. Stratum corneum
• 25-30 layers of dead flat keratinocytes
• Shed continuously and replaced by cells from the
deeper strata
• Serves as a water, microbe, injury barrier
B. Stratum lucidum
• Present only in thick skin
• 3-5 layers of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes
• Dense packed intermediate filaments
• Thick plasma membranes

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C. Stratum granulosum
• Located above the stratum spinsosum
• 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes undergoing
apoptosis
• Organelles begin to disintegrate becomes nonliving
cells
• Marks the transition between deeper metabolically
active strata and the dead cells of the superficial
strata.

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• Contains lamellar granules
• Secretes lipid-rich secretion that acts as a water
sealant
D. Stratum spinosum
• Located above the stratum basale
• 8-10 layers of keratinocytes
• Some cells retain their ability for cell division
• Cells have spinelike projections (bundles of filaments
of the cytoskeleton) tightly joins cells to each other.
• Provides skin both strength and flexibility

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E. Stratum basale
• Also referred to as stratum germinatum because this
is where new cells are formed
• Deepest layer of the epidermis
• Single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes

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 Dermis
• Made of fibrous connective tissue that contains arterioles for
supplying nutrients (i.e. oxygen, glucose, water, and ions) to its
structures and to the epidermis .
• Also contains pili arrector muscles (made of skeletal muscle,
under involuntary control) to wrinkle the skin and erect the hairs .
• Contains nerves and nerve receptors to detect the sensations of
heat, cold, pressure, touch, and pain .
• Also contains hair follicles to develop the hair.
• Contains sebaceous gland to secrete sebum onto skin surface, and
sudoriferous glands to secrete sweat.

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• Second deepest part of the skin
• Blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair follicles are embedded
here
• Composed mainly of connective tissues (collagen and elastic
fibers)
• Collagen fibers make up 70% of the dermis and give structural
toughness and strength.
• Elastin fibers are loosely arranged in all directions and give
elasticity to the skin
• Has two layers – Papillary Layer and reticularl layer.

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1. Papillary layer
• Superficial portion of the dermis
• Consists of areolar connective tissue containing
elastic fiber
• Surface area is increased due to projections called
dermal papillae which contains capillaries or tactile
receptors
• Epidermal ridges conforms to the dermal papillae

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2. Reticular layer
• Deeper portion of the dermis
• Consist of dense irregular connective tissue containing
collagen/elastic fibers
• Provides skin with strength and elasticity
• Contains hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous and
sudoriferous glands

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 Hypodermis
– Made of adipose tissue and loose connective tissue.
– Collagen and elastic fibers in the loose connective
tissue are continuous with the fibers in the dermis
layer.
– Adipose tissue serves as a heat insulator against cold
climate and as a fat storage.
– Loose connective tissue allows the skin to be bound
with underlying muscles.
– Also contains large blood vessels (arteries and veins).

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 Accessory Structures of The Skin
1. Hair
– produced by epithelial cells at the hair papilla.
– made of keratinized cells .
– consists two regions: hair root (in the hair follicle, embedded
in the dermis layer), and hair shaft (protruded through the
epidermis to the outside).
– Hair pigment (melanin) is produced by melanocytes in hair
papilla .
– Hair growth is affected by nutrition and hormones (i.e.
testosterone).

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2. Pili arrector muscle
• made of skeletal muscle, but under involuntary
control.
• attached to each hair follicle, for erecting the hair.
• situations such as extreme emotions or extreme
temperatures can activate its involuntary contraction,
resulting in hair erection or skin wrinkling.

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3.Sebaceous gland
• Oil gland that is made of modified cuboidal
epithelium.
• Occurs all over the body except in the palm and sole.
• Attached to each hair follicle, so that sebum can be
secreted into the hair root and diffuse upward .
• Sebum helps the skin and hair to be waterproof, and
retards bacterial growth on skin surface (due to its
acidity).

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4.Sudoriferous gland
• sweat gland that secretes sweat to promote
evaporation.
• found all over the body except the lips, nipples, and
external genitalia.
• referred to as "tubular gland" where it is a long
tubule coiled in the dermis layer, and uses a long
duct to release sweat onto skin surface through a
pore.

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5. Nails
• Scale like modification of epithelial cells in the
epidermis.
• Made of keratin.
• Protect ends of fingers and toes and prevent over
sensitization of the nevre receptors in extremities.
• Growing cells are derived from a region at base of
nail called "lunula".

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 Burns
• Burns - too much sunlight or heat; categorized by
degree of penetration of skin layer
• First degree burns:
– only the epidermis is damaged with redness and swelling .
• Second degree burns:
– epidermis & upper region of dermis is involved. There is
Redness, swelling, and blisters.
• Third degree burns:
– all layers of skin burned (most severe)
– Skin graft is necessary to repair
– Skin looks cherry red or blacken
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 Skin Cancer
• Most skin tumors are benign
• Cause of cancer is unknown, but probably due to
overexposure to ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight .
 Three main types of skin cancer:
1. Basal cell carcinoma
• The most common type of skin tumor; usually benign.
• Cells of stratum basale are affected, as a result they
cannot form keratin and begin to invade into the dermis.
• Surgical removal (given that early detection is done) is
99% successful .

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2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• arises from keratinocytes in stratum spinosum
• mostly in the scalp, ears, or hands
• grows and migrates rapidly
• early detection is critical for successful treatment

3. Malignant Melanoma – most dangerous

• cancer of the melanocyets in stratum basale.
• only 5% of all skin cancer, but the frequency is increasing
• grow and migrates extremely rapidly
• usually deadly
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 Clinical Terms
• Albinism – inherited, melanocytes do not produce melanin.
• Boils and carbuncles – inflammation of hair follicles and
sebaceous glands, infection spread to dermis .
• Contact dermatitis – itching and redness and swelling forming
blisters. It is caused by chemical burns.
• Psoriasis - characterized by reddened epidermal lesions
covered by dry silvery scales.
• Roscea - redness of skin around eyes and nose accompanied
by rash –like lesions, It gets worse with alcohol , hot H2O, and
spicy food .
• Vitiligo - skin pigmentation disorder caused by loss of melan-
octyts and uneven dispersal of melanin (unpigmented skin
surrounded by normally pigmented areas) .
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 Psoriasis
Vitiligo

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