Computer

Networks - 1
A computer network is a
collection of interconnected
autonomous computing
devices so as to exchange
information or share
resources.
 Components of
a Computer
Network
1)Hosts / Nodes /
Clients

2)Servers

3)Network hardware
(NIC, Hub, Switch,
Router)

4)Communication
Channel

5)Software
3) Network hardware (NIC, Hub, Switch, Router)
A network requires specialized hardware to carry out various
roles, such as establishing connections, controlling network
traffic etc. There are many different types of hardware that are
required in a network:

a) NIC (Network Interface Card)

 It is a network card attached to a host to establish
connection.
 Every NIC has a unique physical address called Mac address,
6 bytes (48 bits) and is assigned by NIC manufacturer.
(Click Start > Control Panel > Network and Internet > Network
and
Sharing Center. OR ipconfig/all in cmd prompt)
 NIC is also called as NIU / TAP (Network Interface Unit /
Terminal Access Point)
4) Communication Channel
Hosts in a network interact with other host or server through
communication channel /medium. The communication channels
can either be wired or wireless:

a) Wired Communication Channels

 When a host or network connected with one another through
guided media like cables.
 Example: twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, fibre-optic
cables.
b) Wireless Communication Channels
 When a host or network connected with one another
through unguided media like radio waves, satellite etc.

 Example: Microwaves, radio waves, Satellites, infrared

waves, laser
5) Software
 Software layers of a network make networking possible.
These comprise of network protocols, network OS etc.

 Protocols defines rules to interact with one another.

 Network OS is a specialized OS that can handle networking
tasks.

6) Network Services
They help in providing different functionalities over a network,
such as DNS (Domain Name System), File sharing, VOIP (Voice
Over IP).
 Types of
Networks

Topic one
Topic one
NETWORK PROCESSING ENGINE
SMDS – Switched
Multimegabit Data
Service

FDDI – Fiber
Distributed Data
Interface
Types of Networks by Component
Roles
 Peer – to – Peer networks

 Client / Server Networks

 Evolution of
Networking

 First network was ARPANET (Advanced research Projects

Agency Network)

 In 1960s the ARPA developed a revolutionary method of

communication called “Packet Switching”

 Evolution of Networking started back in 1969 by

development of first network called ARPANET, which led to
the development of Internet.

 The network grew and evolved to become the internet,

adding features like TCP/IP, the domain name system and the
WWW all due to the creation of ARPANET.
 In mid 80’s, another federal agency , the NSF, created a new,
high-capacity network called NSFnet, which was more
capable than ARPANET.

 NSFnet was strictly built for academic and engineering

research.

 Many private companies built their own networks, which

were later interconnected along with ARPANET and NSFnet to
form Internet.

 In 1990s, It was Inter networking, the linking of two or other

networks (ARPANET, NSFnet, and other private network) was
named Internet.
 The original ARPANET was shut down in 1990, and
Government funding for NSFnet discontinued in 1995.
The Internet:

 The internet is a wide network that connects computers, PCs,

smartphones to each other.

 It is an interconnection of large and small networks around

the globe.

 Internet allows the user to connected to one network to

communicate with users on another network.

 It uses the TCP/IP to link devices worldwide.

How does Internet Work?:

 Most computers are not connected directly to Internet,

instead they are connected to smaller networks, which in
turn are connected through gateways to the Internet
backbone.

 A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.

 Backbone is a central interconnecting structure that

connects one or more networks just like the trunk of a tree or
the spine of a human being.
Let us see how internet functions:

1) At source computer, the message or file to be sent to

another computer is divided into packets (carrying some
information).

2) Each packet is given a number serially (1, 2, 3)

3) All these packets are sent to address of destination

computer.

4) Destination will receive packet in random manner. In case, if

it is lost or garbled, it is demanded again.

5) The packets are reassembled in the order of their number

and the original message is obtained.
Internet Functioning:

 The communication protocol used by internet is TCP/IP.

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is responsible for
dividing the file/message into packets on source computer
and reassembling at destination.
 IP (Internet Protocol) is responsible for handling address
of destination computer so that each packet is routed to
proper destination.
Interspace is a client/server
software program that
allows multiple users to
communicate online with
real-time audio, video and
text chat in dynamic 3D
environment.
 Switching
Techniques
 Switching in computer network helps in deciding the best
route for data transmission if there are multiple paths in a
larger network.

 One-to-one connection.
 Data Communication
Terminologies
 Data channel:
 Data channel means the flow of data or to carry the data
from one device to another.
 In other words, we can say the data channel is a computer
path or medium used to transfer the data from sender to
receiver.

 Baud:
 It’s actually a common measurement unit of data transfer.
 Baud rate measures the rate at which the data is
transferred from the sender to the receiver in the data
channel.
 It can be expressed in terms of bps (bits per second).
 Bits Per Second (bps):
 Its symbol is “bit/s”. It can be present in two forms i.e.
bps (bits per second) and Bps (Bytes per second).
 It’s also a measurement unit of speed at which the data is
transferred.
 It’s the range of frequencies over which a communication
system works.
 It generally measures the amount of data that can be
transferred in a given amount of time over a data channel.
 It’s the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies of a data channel.
 The measurement unit of frequency is cycles per second i.e.
hertz.
 More bandwidth is often preferred for faster internet and
better network performance.
Let's consider an example to calculate bandwidth:
Suppose you have a network that can transfer 10 megabytes
(MB) of data in 5 seconds.
The bandwidth of this network can be calculated as follows:
Bandwidth = Amount of data transmitted / Time taken to
transfer data
Bandwidth = 10 MB / 5 seconds
Bandwidth = 2 MB per second
So, the bandwidth of this network is 2 megabytes per second.
This means that the network can transfer 2 MB of data every
second.

What is Bandwidth in N
etworking? (youtube.c
om)
DTR (Data Transfer Rates):
 It determines the rate of speed at which the data is
transferred from one point to another.
 Its measurement unit is bits per second (bps), Bytes per
second (Bps), or baud.
 In computer, data transfer is mainly measured in Bytes per
second.
 Data transfer between devices such as Hard disk and CD-
ROM is usually measured in milliseconds.
 1 MB = 1024KB , 1 GB = 1024MB, 1 TB = 1024GB
Example:
Your school administration wants to upload an excel file
having about 100 worksheets at the rate of 10 sheets per 20
seconds. What will be the required data rate of the channel?
(Assume that every sheet has a standard size of 4800 bytes)

Answer:
=(bits transferred in given time) / time
= (10 * 4800 * 8) / 20 [ 1 byte = 8 Bits]
= 384000 / 20
= 19200 bps

=19200 / 1024
=18.75 Kbps (Kilo Bytes per Second)
Transmission
Media
Twisted Pair Cable:
Twisted pair cable consists of two identical wires wrapped
together in a double helix (DNA shape).
Merits:
 It is simple, easy to install and maintain.
 It is physically flexible
 It has low weight
 It can be easily connected
 It is very inexpensive

Demerits:
 Due to high attenuation(loss of signal strength due to
external interference) incapable carrying a signal over
long distances without the use of repeaters.
 Its low bandwidth makes unsuitable for broadband
applications.
 Supports maximum data rates 1 Mbps without
conditioning and 10 Mbps with conditioning.
Applications of Twisted pair cables :
 Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to
provide data and voice channels.

 The DSL lines make use of these cables.

 Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted

pair cables.

 They can be used for both analog and digital

transmission.

 RJ-45 is a very common application of twisted pair

cables.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP):
 These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted
together without any other insulation or shielding and
hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables.

 They reduce the external interference due to the

presence of insulation.

 Unshielded twisted pair cables are arranged in pairs so

that we can add a new connection whenever required.

 The DSL or telephone lines in our houses have one extra

pair in them.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP):
 These types of cables have extra insulation or protective
covering over the conductors in the form of a copper braid
covering.

 This covering provides strength to the overall structure of

the cable.

 It also reduces noise and signal interference in the cable.

 The shielding ensures that the induced signal can be

returned to the source via ground and only circulate around
the shield without affecting the main propagating signal.

 These cables are costly and difficult to install.

(RADIO GUIDE)
Merits:
 Coaxial cable is better than twisted-pair cables.
 It can be used as the basis for a shared cable network.
 It can be used for broadband transmission.
 Offer higher bandwidth up to 400 Mbps.

Demerits:
 Expensive compared to twisted-pair.
 Coaxial cables are incompatible with twisted-pair.

Types of Coaxial Cables:

 Thicknet – it is thicker than Thinnet. The thicknet
coaxial cable segments can be up to 500 meters long.

 Thinnet – it is thinner and can have maximum segment

length of 185 meters.
 Types of Fibre Optic Cables:
 Single mode – it supports segment length of up to 5
kms and bandwidth of up to 10 Gbps.

 Multimode – it supports segment length of up to 1 km

and bandwidth up to 100 Gbps.

Type Type – Max Bandwid Installati Cost Interference

Sub Type Segment th on
Length Support
ed
Twisted UTP 100 m 40 Gbps Easy Cheap High
pair Cable STP 100 m 500 Moderate Moderat Moderate
Mbps e
Coaxial Thinnet 185 m 10 Mbps Easy Cheap Moderate
Cable Thicknet 500 m 10 Mbps Hard Moderat Low
e
Fiber Single Up to 5 10 Gbps Vary hard Expensi None
Microwave (Terrestrial Microwave):
 It is similar to radio and television signals and are used
for long distance communication.
 The microwave transmission consists of a transmitter,
receiver and the atmosphere.
 In microwave communication, parabolic antennas are
mounted on towers to send a beam to another antennas
tens of kilometers away.
 With a 100-meter high tower, distances of 100 km
between towers are feasible.
 The microwave transmission is line-of-sight
transmission.

A line-of –sight signal passes through the atmosphere,

originates from a dish antenna, travels in a straight line
free of material obstacles and received by another dish
antenna.
 MERITS (Microwave) DEMERITS (Microwave)
i) It proves cheaper than digging i) It is an insecure communication
trenches for laying cables and
maintaining repeaters and cables,
if cables gets broke by variety of
causes.
ii) Offers freedom from land ii) Signals from a single antenna
acquisition rights that are required may split up and propagate by
for laying, repairing the cables. slightly different paths to receiving
antenna
iii) Ease of communication over iii) Microwave propagation is
difficult terrain. susceptible to weather effects like
rains, thunder storms etc.
iv) Microwaves have the ability to iv) Bandwidth allocation is
communicate over oceans. extremely limited in case of
microwaves.
v) The cost of design,
implementation, and maintenance
 MERITS (Radio Waves)
i) Communication – Radio waves are used for communication over long
distances, including radio broadcasting, mobile phones, and satellite
communications. This allows people to stay connected and informed no
matter where they are.
ii) Medical Applications – Radio waves are used in medical procedures
like MRI scans, which use radio waves to create detailed images of the
body’s internal organs and tissues. They are also used in radiation
therapy to treat cancer patients.
iii) Weather Forecasting – Radio waves are used to study the Earth’s
atmosphere, which helps meteorologists predict the weather more
accurately. This information is vital for farmers, airlines, and many other
industries that rely on weather forecasts
iv) Scientific Research – Radio waves are used by astronomers to study
distant objects in space, such as galaxies and black holes. They are also
used by geologists to study the Earth’s crust and to search for natural
resources.
v) Navigation – Radio waves are used in GPS (Global Positioning System)
to help people navigate using their phones, cars, and other devices. This
 DEMERITS (Radio Waves)
i) Interference – One of the main disadvantages of radio waves is that they
can be easily interfered with. This means that other electronic devices can
disrupt the signal and cause static or even complete loss of communication.
ii) Limited range – Radio waves can only travel a certain distance before
they start to weaken and become less effective. This means that if you’re
too far away from a radio station or transmitter, you might not be able to
receive the signal.
iii) Health concerns – While there is no conclusive evidence that radio waves
are harmful to human health, some people are concerned about the
potential risks associated with prolonged exposure to radio waves.
iv) Weather dependency – Radio waves can be affected by weather
conditions such as rain, snow, and thunderstorms. This means that the
quality of the signal can be affected by bad weather, making it more difficult
to receive clear communication.
v) Security risks – Radio waves are not secure and can be intercepted by
others with the right equipment. This means that sensitive information sent
through radio waves could potentially be intercepted and used for malicious
purposes.
Satellite (Satellite Microwave):
 It is used for broadcasting and receiving signals.
 The signals are transmitted to space where these satellites
are positioned and it retransmits the signal to the
appropriate location.
 It acts as a repeater as it only receives the signal and
retransmits it.
 The satellites should be aligned properly with the earth for
this system to work.
 It is a physical object which revolves around the earth at a
known height.
 Satellite communication is more flexible and reliable
nowadays than cable and fibre optic systems.
 It accepts the signal which is transmitted from the earth
station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is
retransmitted to another earth station.
Merits:
 The satellite microwave coverage areas are more than the
terrestrial microwave.
 The satellite transmission cost is independent of the
distance from the Centre of the coverage area.
 This type of communication is used in mobile and wireless
communication applications.
 It is easy to install.
 Satellite microwave transmission used in a wide variety of
applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Demerits:
 The designing and development of satellite microwaves
requires more time and higher cost.

 These waves always need to be monitored and

controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.

 The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Because of

this reason, another launch of the satellite has to be
planned before it becomes non-functional.
 Terrestrial Microwave Satellite Microwave
Transmission System Transmission System
The frequency range used in this
The frequency range needed is
1. system is between 11 GHz to 14
from 4 GHz to 6 GHz.
GHz.

In this system, attenuation mainly

Attenuation is generally affected by
2. depends on the frequency and
frequency and power.
signal strength.

In terrestrial microwave
In satellite microwave transmission
transmission systems, signal
3. systems, the installation of
requirements make installation
satellites is extremely tough.
moderately difficult.

Terrestrial microwaves are utilized Satellite microwaves communicate

4.
for point-to-point communication. with satellites in space.

It requires focused signals and It requires the proper alignment of

5.
line of sight as the physical path. earth station antennas.
 Satellite Microwave Transmission
Terrestrial Microwave
System
Transmission System
In these systems, short-distance
These systems are very expensive as
systems can be inexpensive but
6. the cost of building and launching is
long-distance systems are almost
very high.
costly.
Relay towers are used to extend Satellites are used for the expansion of
7.
the signals. signals.
Terrestrial microwave systems,
Satellite links provide connectivity in
are employed as a booster to
8. locations where otherwise there is no
fiber-optic networks or for short-
possibility of communication.
range communications.
The area coverage of Terrestrial
The area coverage of Satellite
microwave systems is less
microwave systems is wider than
9. compared to the terrestrial
terrestrial systems with fewer base
systems with fewer base
stations. Hence, less bandwidth.
stations.
 Other Unguided Media
1) Infrared:
 Infrared waves are the electromagnetic waves having
frequency range from 300 GHz to 400 THz. The wave
length if infrared is 750 nm to 1 mm.
 It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will
be very high.
 Infrared wave cannot penetrate through wall or hard
object. Thus it is limited in indoor use.
 An infrared communication provides better security with
minimum interference.
 Infrared communication is unreliable outside the
building because the sun rays will interfere with the
infrared waves.
 It is used for short-range communication such as data
transfer between two cell phones, TV remote operation,
data transfer between a computer and cell phone
2) Laser:
 Laser transmission requires direct line-of-sight.

 It is unidirectional, but much higher than microwave.

 It requires the use of a laser transmitter and a photo-

sensitive receiver at each end.

 The laser transmission is point-to-point transmission.

 The only demerit is adversely affected by weather.

3) Bluetooth:
 It is wireless short-range (up to 30 ft[10m])

 Communication takes place using low-power radio waves

on a frequency band between 2.4 GHz and 2.483g GHz.
 Network
Topologies
Network topology refers to the physical
configuration of a set of interconnected
computing devices.

Factors
Cost

Flexibility
Reliabilit
y
Point-to-Point Link:
This is the kind of topology that relies upon two functions
i.e. Transmit and Receive. It is a type of communication
network between two communication nodes where there is
one transmitter and on the other end, there is the receiver.
It is a kind of communication medium which have two
endpoints or end nodes. They provide high bandwidth with
a dedicated communication connection between two
systems.
Star Topology:
 A star may be a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN)
during which all nodes are individually connected to a
central connection point, sort of a hub or a switch.
 A star takes more cable than e.g. a bus, but the benefit
is that if a cable fails, just one node is going to be
brought down.
 Each device within the network is connected to a central
device called a hub.
 If one device wants to send data to another device, it’s
first to send the info to the hub then the hub transmits
that data to the designated device.
Advantages of Star Topology
 It is very reliable – if one cable or device fails then all the
others will still work.
 It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur.
 It is less expensive because each device only needs one
I/O port and wishes to be connected to the hub with one
link.
 Easier to put in.
 Robust in nature.
 Easy fault detection because the links are often easily
identified.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or
removing devices.
 Each device requires just one port i.e. to attach to the
hub.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Requires more cable than a linear bus.

 More expensive than linear bus topology due to the value
of the connecting devices (network switches).
 If the hub goes down everything goes down, none of the
devices can work without the hub.
 Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance
because it’s the central system of Star.
 Extra hardware is required (hubs or switches) which adds
to the cost.
 Performance is predicated on the one concentrator i.e.
hub.
Bus Topology:

• All of the devices in a bus topology network are linked

together by a single cable, which is referred to as a “bus”
and the cable is known as backbone cable.
• All of the network’s devices can simultaneously receive
the same signal due to the shared communication
medium provided by this connection.
• Bus topology carries transmitted data through the cable
because data reaches each node, the node checks the
destination address (MAC/IP address) to determine if it
matches their address.
Key Features of Bus Topology:
 An efficient bus architecture is established, and
each station is connected by a single backbone
cable.
 There are two requirements: Initially, the nodes
are connected to the backbone cable directly, or
they use a drop cable to help them connect.
 The well-known access method for bus
topologies is called CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Advantages of Bus Topology:

 It is the easiest network topology for linearly connecting

peripherals or computers.
 It works very efficiently well when there is a small network.
 The length of cable required is less than a star topology.
 It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network
without affecting any other device.
 Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology
i.e. mesh and star
 It is easy to understand topology.
 Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:

 Bus topology is not good for large networks.

 Identification of problems becomes difficult if the whole
network goes down.
 Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard.
 Need terminators are required at both ends of the main
cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If the main cable is damaged, the whole network fails or
splits into two.
 Packet loss is high.
 This network topology is very slow as compared to
other topologies.
 Tree Topology is a topology
which is having a tree
structure in which all the
computers are connected like
the branches which are
connected with the tree.
 In Computer Network, tree
topology is called a
combination of a Bus and Star
network topology.
 The main advantages of this
topology are that is very
flexible and also has better
scalability.
 Tree network topology is
considered to be the simplest
topology in all the topologies
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:

 This network is very difficult to configure as compared to

the other network topologies.
 Due to the presence of a large number of nodes, the
network performance of tree topology becomes a bit slow.
 If the computer on the first level is erroneous, the next-
level computer will also go under problems.
 As the data needs to travel from the central cable this
creates dense network traffic.
 The Backbone appears as the failure point of the entire
segment of the network.
 The establishment cost increases as well.
 If the bulk of nodes is added to this network, then the
maintenance will become complicated.
Advantages of Tree Topology :

 This topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data

arrangement of the nodes.
 As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the
hierarchical chain, this topology provides high scalability.
 The other nodes in a network are not affected if one of
their nodes gets damaged or does not work.
 Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault
identification can be done.
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Tree Topology is highly secure.
 Tree Topology is reliable.
 Ring Topology may be a
network configuration where
device connections create a
circular data path, like
points on a circle which
forms like a ring structure.
 A number of repeaters are
used for Ring topology with
a large number of nodes to
send data and to prevent
data loss repeaters are used
in this network.
 In this data travels in
unidirectional or
bidirectional forms. It is
used in LANs and WANs
depending on the card of
Mesh Topology:

 In mesh, all the computers

are interconnected to every
other during a network.
 Each computer not only
sends its own signals but
also relays data from other
computers.
 The nodes are connected to
every other completely via a
dedicated link for nodes.
 Every node features a point-
to-point connection to the
opposite node.
 The connections within the
mesh are often wired or
A fully connected
topology is a
network setup
where each device is
directly linked to
every other device.
Imagine a group of
friends where
everyone has a
direct phone line to
call each other
without passing
messages through
someone else.
 Crucial
ity of
Work

Commu
nicatio
Cost
n Factors to
Media consider
for
Topology
Selection

Length
of
Future
cable
growth
neede
d
 Basic Communication
Modes of Operation

Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex

Operation Operation Operation
  As the name signifies, it is the most
simple mode of transmission.
 It only sends information/data in one
direction i.e. from the sender to the
receiver.
Simplex:  The receiver cannot reply to the sender.
 For example, a radio broadcast is a
simplex channel. As it sends signals to
the audience but never receives signals
back from them.
  In a Half Duplex Mode, the
data/information can be sent in both the
directions, but one at a time and not

Half- simultaneously.
 For example, a walkie-talkie is a device
that can be used to send message in both
Duplex: the directions, but both the persons can
not exchange the message simultaneously.
One can only speak and the other can only
listen.
  In a Full Duplex Mode, the transmission of
the information between the sender and
the receiver can occur simultaneously.
Full-  It is used when communication in both
direction is required all the time.

Duplex:  For example, a telephone is a two way

communication in which both the persons
can talk and listen to each other at the
same time.
 Identifying Nodes on a
Computer Network

IP Address MAC Address

 It is a network card attached to a host to establish
connection.
 Every NIC has a unique physical address called Mac
address, 6 bytes (48 bits) and is assigned by NIC
manufacturer.
 First 3 bytes (24-bits) is for OUI (Organisational Unique
Identifier) and next 3 bytes for Card manufacturer.
(Click Start > Control Panel > Network and Internet >
Network
and Sharing Center. OR ipconfig/all in cmd prompt)
 Thank
you

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