Chapter II – The Language of Mathematics

Typical English sentence

A typical English sentence has the following syntax:

[Article] – [noun] – [verb] – [article] – [noun]

Example: The boy is a student.

Articles: ‘The’ and ‘a’

Nouns: ‘boy’, and ‘student

Verb: ‘is’
 Mathematical Sentence
In mathematics a correct mathematical sentence more or
less follows this syntax without the articles:

[noun] – [verb] – [noun]

Example: 2+3
=5

Nouns: ‘2+3’ and ‘5’

Verb: ‘=‘
 Mathematical Expressions
• When mathematical objects like numbers, matrices, sets,
vectors, functions, etc. are properly joined together by
well-defined operations we call the resulting expression a
mathematical expression

• Mathematical expressions are the nouns in a mathematical

sentence

Examples of mathematical expressions

1. 2x + 3y
2. 7x3 + 3x2 - 2x +1
 Mathematical objects

• When a mathematical object is not specified as to its value or

its list of elements, then the mathematical object is usually
called a variable and can be denoted by a symbol, commonly
by a letter in the English alphabet.

Example:

1. Write as a mathematical expression the following:

“Mario’s age 5 years from now.”
Solution
Let x be Mario’s age now. (x is the mathematical object)

Then x+5 is Mario’s age 5 years from now

So, the mathematical expression is: x + 5

Definition of a
Proposition
A proposition is a sentence that is either
true or false, but not both. Propositions are also
known as statements or mathematical
statements.

• A mathematical statement is a mathematical

sentence that is either true or false
• The truth of a mathematical statement is
governed by the rules of logic
Example (Proposition)
Determine if the following is a proposition
(Statement) or not. If it is a proposition,
state whether it is true or false.
1. Oh no!
Answer: Not a proposition. It is simply an exclamation
2. A triangle is a three sided polygon.
Answer: Proposition. TRUE
3. Study hard.
Answer: Not a proposition. This is a command.
 Truth of a mathematical statement
Definition of a Conjunction
When a proposition is formed by combining
two propositions with the word , it is called a
conjunction, and the two propositions are called
conjuncts. A conjunction is true when both of its
conjuncts are true and false otherwise.
Rule 1. Conjunction (). The conjunction of two
statements is true if both statements are true
Example (Conjunction)
Determine the truth value of the
following conjunctions:
1.) , and all even integers are
divisible by two.
Answer: TRUE
2.) All integers are rational, and 4
is odd.
Answer: FALSE
 Definition of a Disjunction
When a proposition is formed by
combining two propositions with the word , it
is called a disjunction, and the two
propositions are called disjuncts. A
disjunction is true when at least one of its
disjuncts are true and false otherwise.
Rule 2. Disjunction (). The disjunction of two statements is
false if both statements are false.
Example (Disjunction)
Determine the truth value of the following
disjunctions:
1.) , or all even integers are divisible
by two.
Answer: True
2.) All integers are rational, or 4 is
odd.
Answer: True
3.) or circles are round.
Answer: True
Definition of Negation
A Negation of a proposition is a
statement that has the opposite meaning
of the original proposition. Therefore, the
truth value of a negation is the opposite
of the original proposition’s truth value.

T F

F T
Example:
Determine the negation of the
following:
1.)
Negation:
2.) A square has no right
angles.
Negation: It is not the case
that
square has no right
angles.
3.) Max has a valuable card.
Definition of Conditional
A proposition of the form
if hypothesis, then conclusion
Is called a conditional. It is also known as an
implication or an if-then statement.

Rule 3. Conditional (). In a conditional statement, if the

premise is true and the conclusion is false, then the
whole statement is false.
 The Conditional
A conditional statement is a compound
statement that uses the connective if…then.
The conditional is written with an arrow, so “if p
then q” is symbolized
p  q.

The conditional is read as “p implies q” or “if p

then q.”
The statement p is the antecedent, while q is
the consequent.
Example (Conditional)
Determine the truth value of the
following conditionals:
1.) If , then .
Answer: True
2.) If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational
number.
Answer: True
3.) If 3 is a negative number, then .
Answer: True
4.) If , then
Answer: False
 The Conditional
Special Characteristics of Conditional Statements

for a Truth Table

Teacher:
“If you participate in class, then you will get extra
When the antecedent is points."
true and the consequent is
true, p → q is true.
If you participate in class (true) and you get extra points
(true) then, The teacher's statement is true.

When the antecedent is true and the consequent is

false, p → q is false.
If you participate in class (true) and you do not get extra
points (false), then,
The teacher’s statement is false.
 The Conditional
Special Characteristics of Conditional Statements

for a Truth Table

“If you participate in class, then you will get extra
points."
If the antecedent is false, then p → q is
automatically
If true. in class (false), the truth of the
you do not participate
teacher's statement cannot be judged.
The teacher did not state what would happen if you did
NOT participate in class. Therefore, the statement has to
be “true”.
If you do not participate in class (false), then you get
extra
If youpoints.
do not participate in class (false), then you do not
get extra
Thepoints.
teacher's statement is true in both cases.
 The Conditional
Examples:
Decide whether each statement is True or False
(T represents a true statement, F a false
statement).
T → (4 < 2) (8 = 1) → F F → (3 ≠ 9)
T→F F→F F→T
F T T
 More on the Conditional
Equivalences
A conditional statement and its contrapositive
are equivalent, and the converse and inverse are
equivalent.Alternative Forms of “If p, then q”
The conditional p → q can be translated in any of
the following ways:
If p, then p is sufficient for q.
q.
If p, q. q is necessary for p.
p implies All p are q.
q.only if
p q if p.
q. q provided that
p.
Example:
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
a. The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2.
Answer:
The statement, “The number is an even number
provided that it is divisible by 2,” is in “q provided that p
form”
Thus, the “If p, then q” form is
If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even
number.
b. Today is Thursday, only if yesterday was Wednesday.
Answer:
The statement is in “p only if q” form.
Thus, the “If p, then q” form is
If today is Thursday, the yesterday was
Wednesday.
 More on the Conditional
Rewording Conditional Statements
Write each statement in the form “if p, then q.”
a) You’ll be sorry if I go.
(q if
p)
If I go,then you’ll be sorry.
b) Today is Sunday only if yesterday was
Saturday.
(p only if q)
If today is Sunday, then yesterday was Saturday.
c) All Chemists wear lab coats.
(All p are
q) are a Chemist,
If you then you wear a lab coat.
 More on the Conditional
Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive
Conditional
Statement p→q If p, then q

Convers q→p If q, then p

e
If not p,
Inverse ̴ p → ̴ q
then not q

If not q,
Contraposit ̴ q → ̴ p
then not p
ive
 More on the Conditional
Determining Related Conditional Statements
Given the conditional statement, determine the following:
a) the converse, b) the inverse, and c) the contrapositive.

If I live in Wisconsin, then I shovel snow,

a)
Converse
If I shovel then I live in Wisconsin.
snow,
b) Inverse
If I do not live in then I do not shovel snow
Wisconsin,
c) Contrapositive
If I do not shovel then I do not live in
snow, Wisconsin.
Definition of Biconditional
A proposition of the form
proposition 1 if and only if proposition 2
Is called a biconditional.

Rule 3. Biconditional (). In a biconditional statement, the

idea is that if it is true, if both propositions are true at or
both false exactly the same time.

P Q P
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example
State whether each biconditional is true or false.

1.) if and only if .

Answer: True

2.) if and only if .

Answer: False
 Statements and Quantifiers
Quantifiers
Besides substitution, there is another way to form a
propositio
Existential Quantifiers are words or phrases such as some,
there exists, for at least one, and at least one.
Quantifiers are used extensively in mathematics to indicate
how many cases of a particular situation exist.
Negations of Quantified Statements
Statement Negation
All do. Some do not.
Some do. None do.
 Statements and Quantifiers
Quantifiers
Universal Quantifiers ( are the words all, each, every, no, and
none.
Existential Quantifiers are words or phrases such as some,
there exists, for at least one, and at least one.
Quantifiers are used extensively in mathematics to indicate
how many cases of a particular situation exist.
Negations of Quantified Statements
Statement Negation
All do. Some do not.
Some do. None do.
 Symbolizing statements

• Logical statements are conventionally denoted by lower case

letters like p, q, r, s, etc

Example p : Nadia is a Filipino

q : Piolo is a Filipino

Conjunction: pq: Nadia is a Filipino and Piolo is a Filipino

Disjunction: pq: Nadia is a Filipino or Piolo is a Filipino

Conditional: pq: If Nadia is a Filipino then Piolo is a Filipino

Example:
Symbolize the following:

If Nadine heard the noise, then she would have

called the neighbors if she was not scared. She
did not call the neighbors although she had heard
the noise. So Nadine was scared. (H,C,S)

H: Nadine heard the noise

C: Nadine called the neighbors
S: Nadine was scared
H: Nadine heard the noise
C: Nadine called the neighbors
S: Nadine was scared
In
symbols:
· If Nadine heard the noise, then she would have called the
neighbors if she was not scared.

H  (~S  C):
· She did not call the neighbors although she had heard the
noise

~C  H
· So Nadine was scared.

S
 Quantification
Existential Proposition
D 4 P(4)
5 P(5) T
6 P(6) F

When at least one substitution yields a true

proposition, is true.
Otherwise, it is false.

Example:1. There exist such that

 Quantification
Universal Proposition
D 4 P(4)
5 P(5) T
6 P(6)

When all substitution yields true propositions, is

true. Otherwise, it is false.

Example: For each , y

For every , y
 Quantification
Theorem: If D is a domain for a predicate , then:

]
 Valid or Invalid?
Sound or unsound?
• The fish is fresh or I will not order it.
The fish is fresh. Therefore, I will
order it.
• If she doesn’t get on the plane, she
will regret it. She does not regret it.
Therefore, she got on the plane.
• If it rains, then the game will not be
played. It is not raining. Therefore,
the game will be played.
 Valid or Invalid?
Sound or unsound?
• If Nadine heard the noise, then she would have
called the neighbors if she was not scared. She
did not call the neighbors although she had
heard the noise. So Nadine was scared.
BIT OPERATIONS