UNIT 3

Physical Layer

By- S. S. Naghate
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple data streams
over a single communication medium. The process of combining
these data streams is known as multiplexing, and the hardware
used for this purpose is called a multiplexer (MUX).

• A multiplexer takes n input lines and generates a single output

line, following a many-to-one approach. Conversely,
demultiplexing is achieved using a demultiplexer (DEMUX),
which separates a single input signal into multiple output signals,
following a one-to-many approach.
 Why Multiplexing?
• Efficient Use of Bandwidth: A single transmission medium
can only carry one signal at a time. Multiplexing allows
multiple signals to share the same medium, effectively utilizing
the available bandwidth.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Transmission services can be expensive.
By combining multiple signals into one, the cost of
transmission can be reduced.
• Collision Avoidance: When multiple signals share a common
medium, there is a risk of collision. Multiplexing helps to avoid
such collisions by managing how signals are transmitted.
Types of Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
 FDM
• It is an analog method.
• Frequency Division Multiplexing is a method that divides the
available bandwidth of a single transmission medium into several
channels.
• Modulation methods are used to convert the input signals into
frequency bands, which are then merged by a multiplexer to
produce a composite signal.
• The primary goal of FDM is to divide available bandwidth into
multiple frequency channels and assign them to various devices.
• The modulation process divides the input signals into frequency
bands, which are subsequently merged to produce a composite
signal.
• Sub-carriers are the carriers that are utilized to modulate the
signals. They are denoted as f1,f2,…fn.
Applications of FDM
• FDM is widely used in television networks.
• It’s utilized in FM and AM radio broadcasts.
Each FM radio station broadcasts at a distinct frequency, which is
multiplexed to produce a composite signal. The multiplexed signal
is broadcast over the air.

Advantages of FDM:
• For analogue signals, FDM is utilized.
• The FDM modulation technique is relatively basic and
straightforward.
• An FDM may send a large number of signals at the same time.
• It does not need any sort of synchronization between the
transmitter and the recipient.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 WDM

• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is similar to Frequency Division

Multiplexing except for the fact that optical signals are delivered
over fiber optic cable.
• WDM is a technique used in fiber optics to enhance the capacity of
a single fiber.
• It is utilized to take advantage of the high data rate capabilities of
fiber optic cable.
• The signals are separated at the receiving end by a demultiplexer
before being sent to their respective destinations.
• A prism can be used to do multiplexing and demultiplexing.
• Prism can function as a multiplexer by mixing several optical
signals to produce a composite signal, which is then sent through a
fiber optical connection.
• Prism also does a reverse process, which is signal demultiplexing.
• Dense wavelength division multiplexing merges a large number of
Advantages of WDM
• Full-duplex transmission is achievable with the aid of
WDM.
• WDM is simple to reconfigure.
• With the aid of WDM, several signals may be sent at the
same time.
• This method is less costly, and system expansion is simple.
• This method is highly secure.
• Because optical fiber is used in WDM, optical components
are more dependable and provide more bandwidth.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 TDM
• It is a digital method.
• In the case of Frequency Division Multiplexing, all signals
operate at the same time but at various frequencies, whereas in
the case of Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate at
the same frequency but at different times.
• The total time available in the channel is divided among
multiple users using the Time Division Multiplexing method. As
a result, each user is assigned a unique time interval known as a
Time slot during which data is to be delivered by the sender.
• For a set period of time, a user assumes control of the channel.

• The signal is sent in the form of frames in TDM. Frames

include a cycle of time slots, with one or more slots allotted to
each user in each frame.
1. Synchronous TDM:
 1. Synchronous TDM
• Synchronous TDM is a method in which each device is allocated a
time slot.
• In Synchronous TDM, each device is assigned a time slot
regardless of whether the device carries data or not.
• If the device has no data, the slot will stay vacant.

• Signals are transmitted in the form of frames in Synchronous

TDM. Frames are used to organize time periods. If a device does
not have data for a specific time slot, the empty slot is sent.
• There are n slots if there are n devices.

Advantages of synchronous TDM

• This approach is simple to use.
• Using this approach ensures a high level of performance.
2. Asynchronous TDM:
 2. Asynchronous TDM
• Asynchronous TDM is sometimes referred to as Statistical TDM.
• This is a method in which time slots are not fixed, as in Synchronous TDM. Only
those devices with data to send are assigned time slots. As a result, we may claim
that an Asynchronous Time Division multiplexer only sends data from active
workstations.
• The overall speed of the input lines in asynchronous TDM might be more than
the channel capacity.
• Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor takes incoming data streams and
generates a frame with no empty slots.
• Each slot in Asynchronous TDM has an address part that identifies the data
source.
• The distinction between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that
many slots in Synchronous TDM go unused, whereas slots in Asynchronous
TDM are completely used. This results in shorter transmission times and more
efficient channel usage.
Advantages of Asynchronous TDM:
• There is the effective utilization of transmission capacity in this multiplexing.
Transmission/Communication Media
 Criteria for selection of transmission media
• Segment length – The signal degrades for each type of media after
traveling a certain distance to the point where it becomes
unintelligible. This distance is referred to as the segment length.
• Attenuation – The loss of signal strength when traveling a distance
is called attenuation. Measured in decibels (DB).
• Bandwidth – Amount of data that can travel through the cable in a
unit period of time. Measure in kbps, Mbps, etc.
• Interference – Each cable is susceptible to certain forms of external
noise. This is called EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) or RFI
(Radio frequency interference)
• Crosstalk – When a signal carrying conductor is placed near
another signal carrying conductor. Interference is generated in the
other cable. This is called crosstalk.
Categories of Transmission Media
 Twisted pair
• This is a physical media which has made up of a
pair of twisted cables.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• The cost is average.
• The installation process is very easy.
• These cables have a higher capacity than unshielded pair cables
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Low cost
• The installation process is easy.
 Coaxial cable
• This is a very common use of transmission media.
• Higher speed
• Better shielding
• Coaxial cables provide the highest bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
• Expensive
• If the cable is damaged, the entire network will fail.
 Fiber optics
• This cable uses electrical signals for transmitting data.
• There is a plastic coat around optical fibers.
• Higher bandwidth than coaxial cables
• Higher speed
• Can transmit data to a longer distance.
• Fiber optics refers to the technology and method
of transmitting data as light pulses along a glass or
plastic strand or fiber.
• Fiber optic cables are used for long-distance and high-
performance data networking.

• They are capable of transmitting data over longer

distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than
electrical cables, making them a critical component
in modern telecommunications,internet, and
computer networking.
 Main Elements of Fiber Optics
• Core: It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically
transparent dielectric medium and carries the light transmitter to
receiver and the core diameter may vary from about 5um to 100
um.
• Cladding: It is an outer optical material surrounding the core
having a reflecting index lower than the core and cladding helps to
keep the light within the core throughout the phenomena of total
internal reflection.
• Buffer Coating: It is a plastic coating that protects the fiber made
of silicon rubber. The typical diameter of the fiber after the coating
is 250-300 um.
Modes in Fiber optics cable
Uses of Fiber Optics
• Fiber Optics can be used in Computer Broadcasting and
Networking
• Fiber Optics are used on the Internet. They are also used
in Television Cable.
• Fiber Optics are widely used in Military Activities. They
are also used in Medical Purposes like for precise
illumination.
• They can also be used in Underwater environments as
they don’t require to be replaced frequently.
Advantages of Fiber Optics
• Fiber Optics supports bandwidth with higher capacities.
• Electromagnetic Interference is very little with Fiber
Optics.
• Fiber Optics are stronger and lighter than copper cables.
• Very little Maintenance is required in Optical Fiber.

Disadvantages of Fiber Optics

• Fiber Optics is more costly than Copper Wire.
• Huge manual work is required to install new cables.
• Some optical fibers like glass fiber require more protection.
• Fiber Optics are more fragile i.e., can be easily broken, or
signals can be lost easily.
 Unguided media
• Unguided media is a type of Transmission Media. A
transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver.

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor. It is also known as
unbounded or wireless media, and does not rely on
physical pathways to transmit signals.

• Instead, they use wireless communication methods to

propagate signals through the air or free space.
 Radio waves
• Radio waves are electromagnetic signals used for various
wireless communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
and radio broadcasting.
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and
1 GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are
omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions.
• This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have
to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received
by any receiving antenna.
• The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio
waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference
by another antenna that may send signals using the same
frequency or band.
 Omni Directional Antenna
• Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out
signals in all directions. Based on the wavelength,
strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have
several types of antennas.
 Radio Waves
• Using radio waves, we can transmit data through all the
directions of free space.
• The range of the frequencies of radio waves will be 3 kHz
to 1 kHz.
• FM radio is a well-known example of radio waves.
Applications of Radio Waves
• The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them
useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many
receivers.
• FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.

Advantages of Radio Waves

• It is used in WAN (Wide Area Network).
• Used in mobile Cellular phones.
• Radio wave spread in large area so they can penetrate the wall.
• It’s provided a higher transmission rate.
 Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1
and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are
unidirectional.
• The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.
• A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering
with another pair of aligned antennas.
 Unidirectional Antenna
• Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out
signals in one direction.
• Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn.
 Microwaves
Two types of microwaves:
• 1. Terrestrial microwave
• 2. Satellite microwave
• However, transmitting data through microwaves is cheaper than
using cables and we can communicate through the ocean using
microwaves.
 Infrared waves
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls.
• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between
one system and another; a short-range communication system in
one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
• When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with
the use of the remote by our neighbors.
• Infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In
addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because
the sun’s rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.
• It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
• Infrared signal supports high bandwidth, so the data rate will be
very high.
• It can not penetrate the wall. So, communication in one room
can not be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
• It’s provides better security and minimum interference.
• Infrared communication doesn’t work well outside because
sunlight interferes with the infrared signals
Advantages of Unguided Media

• Flexibility: Devices can connect from anywhere within

the signal range, providing mobility and convenience.
• Allowing devices to communicate without the need for
physical connections.
• Easy to install.
• Scalability: Adding new devices or expanding the
network is straightforward and doesn’t require extensive
reconfiguration.
Disadvantages of Unguided Media
• Interference: Signals can be disrupted by other
electronic devices and weather conditions.
• Security: It is easier for unauthorized people to access
and intercept wireless signals.
• Range Limitations: Wireless signals have a limited
range.
• Signal Quality: Obstacles like buildings and walls can
decrease signal quality.
• Bandwidth: Generally, unguided media can offer lower
bandwidth compared to guided media.
Satellite Transmission
• Two stations on earth want to communicate through radio
broadcast but are too far away to use conventional means.
• The two stations can use a relay station for their
communication. One earth station transmits the signal to the
satellite.
• Uplink frequency is the frequency at which ground station
is communicating with satellite.
• The satellite transponder converts the signal and sends it
down to the second earth station, and this is
called Downlink frequency. The second earth station also
communicates with the first one in the same way.
One-way Satellite Communication
Two-Way Satellite Communication
 Modems
• Modems can modulate as well as demodulate the signals
simultaneously.
• Modem allows to connect only a specific number of devices to
the internet.
• According to the features of modem, it’s price ranges.

• Modems can be upgraded with the help of a specific software

patch.
• To use the devices over the internet with a modem devices need
to be configured with an Internet Service Provider(ISP).
• When the modem is connected to Hub it slows down its process.
Working of Modem
Step 1: Data Generation: When data needs to be transmitted it is first
generated. Therefore, computer system generated the data which is
in digital form of 0s and 1s.
Step 2: Modulation: Modulation is defined as a process of converting
digital data signals of the computer into analog data signals so that
these signals can travel on the internet. The digital data is encoded
onto a carrier wave.
Step 3: Transmission: The resultant of modulation that is modulated
data is transmitted over the communication line to the modem that is
receiving it.
Step 4: Demodulation: Demodulation is defined as a process in which
analog data signals from the internet are converted into digital data
signals so they can be understood by computer systems. In the
process of demodulation, the digital data from the carrier wave is
decoded.
Step 5: Decoding: The resultant of demodulation that is demodulated
data is being sent to the computer systems for their further use.
Advantages of Modem
• A modem converts digital signals into an analog signal.
• The cost of a modem increases according to the features it has.
• The modem helps to connect the LAN to the internet.
• Modem performs both modulation and demodulation processes
simultaneously
Disadvantages of Modem
• The working of the modem slows down when connected to the hub.
• The modem cannot track the traffic between the LAN and the internet.
• When using a modem, a limited number of network devices can be
connected to the internet.
• Modems have a high rock of security-related attacks.
• The modem does not provide maintenance of traffic.
Broadband Modem
Digital Subscriber Line
Digital subscriber line equipment

• DSL modem WiFi and router combo. DSL filter or line

splitter.
• Router.
• Ethernet cable (wires).
• A phone jack or wiring.
 Working
• DSL, or digital subscriber line, is an Internet access technology that uses
existing telephone lines to transmit digital data. Homes and businesses
use digital subscriber line to access broadband data over the Internet.
• DSL can simultaneously carry Internet and voice data over conventional
phone lines, making it a unique broadband Internet type. Broadband
Internet refers to any Internet type that is always on - not just DSL, but
also cable, fiber optic, and several other types.
• Because data is transferred at a high frequency, you can leave your
Internet connection on while making phone calls. DSL is ideal for those
even in rural areas since phone lines can be found throughout the
country - even in areas where fiber and cable Internet infrastructure
doesn't exist. The use of existing telephone wiring to carry data means
DSL internet is widely accessible to all.
• DSL has slower Internet speeds than cable, but it’s cheaper. If all you
need is to surf the web, stream movies and email your colleagues, then
speed from a DSL Internet connection is fast enough to meet these
needs.
How does DSL work?
• A digital subscriber line uses phone wires to get you
online. Note that these are the same wires that power
your home phone, only in this case, they connect you to
the Internet, allowing the transfer of data across the
network.
• To get started, you don’t need an active telephone line.
All you need is the equipment: wires (Ethernet cables), a
DSL modem, DSL filter (a line splitter), and a phone
jack.
ADSL
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is a type of high-speed
broadband internet connection that uses traditional copper telephone lines to
transmit digital data.
Asymmetry: ADSL provides higher download speeds compared to upload
speeds. This is ideal for typical internet activities like browsing, streaming,
and downloading, where users generally receive more data than they send.
Use of Telephone Lines: ADSL utilizes the existing copper telephone
infrastructure, allowing it to offer internet services without the need for new
cables. It can transmit both voice (telephone calls) and data (internet) over the
same line simultaneously.
Speed:
• Download Speeds: Typically range from 1 Mbps to 24 Mbps, depending
on the quality of the phone line, distance from the telephone exchange,
and the service plan.
• Upload Speeds: Usually lower, ranging from 128 Kbps to 3.5 Mbps.

Distance Sensitivity: The speed and quality of an ADSL connection degrade as

the distance from the user’s location to the local telephone exchange increases.
Users closer to the exchange experience better performance.
Applications of ADSL:
• Home Internet Access: ADSL is widely used for home
internet connections, offering sufficient bandwidth for
web browsing, streaming, and online gaming.
• Small Business Connectivity: Many small businesses
use ADSL due to its relatively low cost and ease of
installation, providing adequate internet access for
email, VoIP, and basic online activities.
 HDSL (High Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line)
Introduction
• Early DSL technology developed in the 1990s.
• Alternative to T1/E1 lines for high-speed data transmission.
• Uses existing copper telephone lines.
Key Features
• Symmetric Data Transmission – Equal upload & download speeds (T1:
1.544 Mbps, E1: 2.048 Mbps).
• Multiple Copper Wire Pairs – Uses two or three pairs for stable
transmission.
• Long Distance Support – Up to 3.6 km (without repeaters).
• No Need for Analog to Digital Conversion – Unlike traditional T1/E1
lines.
Advantages
• Cost-effective alternative to leased lines.
• Reliable for business applications (VoIP, video conferencing, etc.).
• Supports high-speed internet for enterprises.
Limitations
• Requires multiple wire pairs, increasing installation
complexity.
• Replaced by newer technologies like ADSL, VDSL, and fiber
optics.
Applications
• Internet backbone for businesses.
• WAN connectivity for enterprises.
• High-speed access for remote offices.
 VDSL (Very High Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber
Line)
• Advanced DSL technology for high-speed data transmission.
• Supports both asymmetric and symmetric data rates.
• Faster than ADSL and HDSL, ideal for multimedia applications.
Key Features
• High-Speed Transmission – Up to 52 Mbps download, 16 Mbps
upload (VDSL1), and 100 Mbps both ways (VDSL2).
• Shorter Distance – Effective up to 1.2 km, best within 300 meters.
• Uses Copper & Fiber – Works over existing telephone lines and
hybrid fiber networks.

Advantages
• Faster than ADSL/HDSL.
• Compatible with fiber-optic networks (FTTC/FTTN).
Limitations
• Speed decreases with distance.
• Requires quality copper wiring for best performance.
• More expensive than ADSL.
Applications
• Broadband internet for homes & businesses.
• IPTV, HD video streaming, and VoIP.
• High-speed access for smart home & enterprise
networks.
 Switching
• A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects and
helps multiple devices share a network without their data
interfering with each other.
• A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a
data packet arrives, the switch decides where it needs to go and
sends it through the right port.
• Some data packets come from devices directly connected to the
switch, like computers or VoIP phones. Other packets come from
devices connected through hubs or routers.
• The switch knows which devices are connected to it and can
send data directly between them. If the data needs to go to
another network, the switch sends it to a router, which forwards
it to the correct destination.
• A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates
the process of switching i.e., incoming data packets and
transferring them to their destination.
• A switch works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. A switch
primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source
computer or network and decides the appropriate port through
which the data packets will reach their target computer or
network.
• A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass
with the help of its destination MAC(Media Access Control)
Address.
• A network switch is more efficient than a network Hub or repeater
because it maintains a switching table, which simplifies its task
and reduces congestion on a network, which effectively improves
the performance of the network.
Types of Switching
Message Switching: This is an older switching technique that has become
obsolete. In message switching technique, the entire data block/message is
forwarded across the entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.
• Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established between the
source and destination beforehand. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of
the network until the data is transferred completely.

• This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the
entire network, instead of its destination only.
• Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into
smaller components, data frames, or packets. These data frames are then
transferred to their destinations according to the available resources in the
network at a particular time.
• This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet. Here,
each data frame contains additional information about the destination and other
information required for proper transfer through network components.
Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is
taken as an individual entity and thus, they are processed separately. Here, no
connection is established before data transmission occurs. Although this approach
provides flexibility in data transfer, it may cause a loss of data frames or late
delivery of the data frames.
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching: In Virtual-Circuit Packet
switching, a logical connection between the source and destination is
made before transmitting any data. These logical connections are
called virtual circuits. Each data frame follows these logical paths and
provides a reliable way of transmitting data with less chance of data
loss.
Differences between Virtual Circuit and Datagram Models