The digestive tract-Anatomy

• Alimentary canal can be divided into five

segments:
– Mouth
– Pharynx,
– Oesophagus
– Stomach,
– Small intestine,
– Large intestine
– Anal canal
MOUTH
• Consists of Cavity ,walls + accessory
structures(teeth, tongue, salivary glands)
• Functions:
• Prehension, mastication, insalivation of food.
• Aggression ,defense, formulation of sounds of
speech
• Airway when flow through the nose is impaired
• Mouth (oral) cavity is entered between the lips, continues into
pharynx
• divided by teeth and margins of the jaws into
• Outer vestibule= bounded by lips & cheeks externally,
• Central mouth cavity proper
• When mouth is closed, divisions communicate thru gaps behind &
betwn the teeth
• Vestibule:
• extends caudally toward the ramus of the mandible , masseter muscle
• proportion of its walls formed by the lips varies with feeding habits;
• wide gape in species that feed greedily/ use their teeth to seize prey or in
fight,
• smaller opening in most herbivores ,rodents
• Lips (labia oris)
• Diet ,feeding habits determine form
• In horse, lips employed in collecting food ,introducing it to
the mouth; for this purpose they must be both sensitive and
mobile
• When other parts are more important in prehension
• Lips less mobile ,reduced size / thickened ,insensitive(bov)
• Dog, lips extensive but thin, can be drawn back from teeth,
not capable of other purposeful movements tho
• Lip posture important in comms - signal aggressive intent
/submission
• Newborn lips form seal about the teat ,successful sucking
• In the bov and pig, the upper lip is modified to
form the extensive moist and glandular nasolabial
plate of the bov and the rostral disc of the pig.
• Insensitive lips of the bov, together with the
backward orientated papillae on the palate and
tongue, are thought to ex plain why the bov is
prone to swallow foreign bodies.
• The upper lip is divided by a median groove
(philtrum) in the dog and small ruminants.
• Lips -skin, intermediate layer of muscle, tendon,
glands, oral mucosa
• Skin ,mucosa meet along margin of lips
• Muscles of lips ,mimetic musculature, facial nerve
• Orbicularis oris muscle encircling the opening,
• Other muscles raise, depress, retract lips
• Small salivary glands among muscle bundles
below mucosa, especially toward angles
(commissures) ,two lips meet
• Cheeks (buccae)
• most capacious in herbivores, similar structure
• Principal support -buccinator muscle- returns to
central cavity any food that has escaped into the
vestibule
• Additional salivary glands, aggregated large
masses: zygomatic gland of dog ,below zygomatic
arch
• Buccal mucosa sufficiently loose to allow occasional
maximal opening of mouth avoiding large folds -
injury from teeth ,tightly anchored in some places
• In ruminants, food dry ,rough-additional protection
required; large, closely spaced, pointed papillae
• small papilla –carries opening of duct of parotid
gland
• Diverticula of the oral vestibule (cheek pouches),
rodents, monkeys
• storage function ,enable animal to harvest food
rapidly, stowing it away for later mastication
• Attain considerable size in hamsters, Reaching
thorax; when developed to this degree, own
supporting musculature
• PALATE
• The palate is a partly osseous, partly soft tissue partition that
separates the digestive and respiratory passages of the head region.
• The bony hard palate lies rostral to the the membranous soft
palate.
• The hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxilla
and incisive bones and the horizontal plate of the palatine bone.
• The oral side of the hard palate is covered by a thick, cornified
mucosa, which is crossed by a series of trans verse ridges (rugae
palatinae)
• In ruminants these ridges carry papillae, which are directed
caudally to guide food backwards.
• A small median swelling, the incisive papilla, is located just
caudal to the incisors and is flanked on each side by the
orifices of the incisive ducts, which perforate the palate.
• These ducts branch out and lead to the nasal cavity and to the
vomeronasal organ, which is a blind canal lined by olfactory
mucosa.
• In the horse the incisive ducts do not connect the nasal with
the oral cavity, but are without outlet.
• In ruminants the dental pad replaces the upper incisors of the
other domestic species
• The pad acts as a counterpart for the lower incisors during
food intake.
• A dense, richly vascularised tissue underlying the
palatine epithelium functions both as the lamina
propria of the mucosa and as the periosteum of the
bone, thus forming a very tight attachment.
• Peripherally the mucosa of the hard palate blends with
the mucosa of the gums.
• The gums(gingiva) are composed of dense fibrous
tissue and the heavily vascularised mucosa.
• It extends around the necks of the teeth and down into
the alveoli, where it is continuous with the alveolar
periosteum.
• Soft palate (velum palatinum)
• Continues caudally from the hard palate to the
intrapharyngeal opening, the rostral border of which is
formed by the caudal rim of the soft palate (arcus
palatopharyngeus)
• Ventral surface of the soft palate is covered by oral
mucosa, which forms many longitudinal and a few
larger transverse folds.
• Dorsal surface is covered by respiratory mucosa.
• Intermediate layer consists of closely packed salivary
glands and muscles and their aponeuroses.
• Muscles are responsible for active movement of the
soft palate:
– Palatine muscle shortens the palate
– Tensor palatini muscle tenses
– Levator palatini muscle raises the soft palate
– The mucous membranes of the pharynx, as well as the soft
palate and the muscles, with the exception of the tensor
muscle of the soft palate, are innervated by a plexus
formed mainly by the vagus nerve, and to a lesser extent
by the glossopharyngeal nerve.
– The tensor muscle of the soft palate is innervated by the
mandibular nerve.
TONGUE (lingua)
• Occupies greater part of oral cavity , extends into
oropharynx
• Has an attached root ,body & free apex
• Highly muscular organ , vigorous ,precise
movements, prehension, lapping, grooming, and
manipulating the food within the mouth
• Speech articulation
• mobility -achieved by restricting the attachments to the more
caudal part,
• Leaves the apex free to roam both within and beyond the
mouth
• Attachment of root is to hyoid bone,
• Body is attached to symphysial region of mandible
• Also supported by a pair of mylohyoideus muscles ,sling it btwn
lower jaws
• In dogs, tongue is used to procure heat loss by panting, which is
a process facilitated by the very generous numerous
arteriovenous anastomoses
• Shape of tongue corresponds to oral cavity
shape
• Apex, dorsoventrally compressed,
• Middle part, triangular in section -joined to
the oral floor by a mucosal fold /frenulum
• Root, uniformly wide -allow entry to muscles
from the hyoid bone
• Mucosal reflections -palatoglossal arches;
pass from root to soft palate
• Demarcate exit from mouth
• Mucosa tough ,tightly adherent where repeated contact
with abrasive food occurs
• Looser ,less heavily keratinized with softer diet
• Surface covered by a variety of papillae
• Soft threadlike (filiform) papillae scattered widely over
human tongue, additional protection;
• harsh conical papillae
• Papillae ,taste buds ,more restricted distribution,
• —fungiform, foliate, and vallate papillae—shapes
• few small salivary glands below tongue epithelium
• bulk of tongue =muscle, intrinsic ,extrinsic
• Four pairs extrinsic muscles
• Geniohyoideus- draws hyoid and tongue
forward
• genioglossus
• other two musclesfrom hyoid apparatus
• Hyoglossus –from basihyoid
• Styloglossus -from the stylohyoid
• Both draw the tongue back
• Styloglossus elevates
• intrinsic muscle disposed in bundles ,run
longitudinally, transversely, vertically
• Simultaneous contraction of the transverse and
vertical bundles stiffens the tongue
• Muscle bundles interspersed fat
• In dog, ventral part of tongue contains a prominent
fibrous condensation, lyssa(the worm)
• It extends from almost the tip of the tongue to root of
the tongue, but does not reach the hyoid bone.
• It is encapsulated in a dense sheath of connective
tissue, which is filled with adipose tissue, striated
muscle and, occasionally, islands of cartilage.
• Responsible for conspicuous median groove on upper
surface of the tongue
• In cattle, the caudal part of the dorsal surface of
the tongue (dorsum linguae)is raised to form a
large prominence(torus lingue) that is defined by
the transverse lingual fossa, in which food has a
tendency to collect.
• This is a potential portal for infection since the
epithelium within the fossa is easily damaged by
sharp food particles
• The tongue of the horse is strengthened by
cartilage within the dorsal part of the tongue
• Lingual mucosa is tough and tightly adherent to the
under lying musclularis on the dorsal and lateral
aspects, but looser and less heavily keratinised ventrally.
• Much of the surface is covered by a variety of papillae,
which are local modifications of the lingual mucosa
• Distribution , size, number and form are characteristic
for each species.
• Based on their function they are grouped into
– Mechanical papillae which are cornified and aid in licking
while protecting the deeper structures from injury
– Gustatory papillae, which are covered in taste buds.
• Mechanical papillae:
– Filiform papillae
– Conical papillae
– Marginal papillaes
• Gustatory papillae:
– Fungiform papillae
– Vallate papillae
– Foliate papillae
• Mechanical papillae are more numerous than the gustatory
papillae.
• The filiform papillae are the smallest and most numerous of all
papillae.
• The conical papillae are larger, but less frequent.
• They are scattered widely over the dorsal surface of the feline
tongue and the base of the tongue in the bov,which accounts for
the rasp-like surface typical of these species.
• Marginal papillae are present in newborn carnivores and piglets
and aid suckling.
• The epithelium of the gustatory papillae contains taste buds,
which are sensitive to taste.
• Their names indicate shape: fungiform, vallate and foliate papillae.
• Few salivary glands are situated in close
proximity to these papillae.
• These glands remove food particles from the
papillae, making them available for new food
material entering the mouth.
• Musculature of the tongue is divided into
intrinsic and extrinsic groups.
• Intrinsic muscle of the tongue is composed of
numerous bundles that run longitudinally,
transversely and vertically without attaching to
the hyoid apparatus
• Classified according to their orientation:
– Superficial and deep longitudinal fibres
– Transverse fibres
– Perpendicular fibres
• Three pairs of extrinsic muscles which have an osseous origin and
radiate into the tongue
• The first part of the name indicates the bone they originate from.
• They are arranged parallel to each other from lateral to medial in the
following order:
– Styloglossus muscle (m.styloglossus)
– Hyoglossus muscle(m.hyoglossus)
– Genioglossus muscle (m.genioglossus)

• The mylohyoid muscle(m.mylohyoideus) suspends the tongue

between the mandibular bodies and is important for the induction of
deglutition.
• Some authors include the geniohyoid muscle in this group of muscles,
since it moves the hyoid bone and thus the tongue rostrally
• Vascular supply to the tongue is primarily through
the paired lingual artery, complemented by the
paired sublingual artery, both of which arise from
the linguofacial trunk.
• Extend numerous branches towards the dorsal
surface of the tongue, and subdivide into several
smaller branches within the mucosa.
• Sublingual vein is of practical importance, since it is
easily visible on the ventral side of the tongue, and
can be used for venepuncture in the clinical setting.
• Innervation of the tongue is complex,
involving five of the cranial nerves:
– Lingual branch of the mandibular nerve(a branch
of the trigeminal nerve),
– Chorda tympani of the intermediofacial nerve
– Glossopharyngeal nerve
– Vagus nerve
– Hypoglossal nerve.
• Lingual nerve provides tactile, pain and thermal innervation from the
rostral two-thirds of the tongue.
• Chorda tympani supplies mechanical and chemoreceptor fibre
innervation to the whole tongue as well as some taste fibres.
– Parasympathetic fibres form synapses in the mandibular ganglion.
• The caudal third of the tongue is innervated by the lingual branch of the
glossopharyngeal nerve supplying taste fibres for this area.
• The root of the tongue receives additional innervation from branches of
the vagus nerve.
• The hypoglossal nerve contains the general somatic motor fibres, which
innervate the musculature of the tongue.
• Damage of this nerve results in paralysis of the tongue.
• This clinical sign is seen after trauma to the head or as a complication
after guttural pouch disease in the horse.
• Sublingual floor of the oral cavity
• largest area extends rostral to frenulum, behind incisor teeth =
prefrenular part
• two sublingual recesses btwn tongue and mandible
• two protuberances in front of frenulum=sublingual caruncles
• Carry common openings of mandibular duct, drains mandibular
salivary gland ,major sublingual salivary duct, drains major
sublingual salivary gland
• Caruncles relatively large in ruminants, well-developed in horse,
small in carnivores ,sometimes absent in pig
• especially expansive in cattle, serrated border
• In horse ,goat ,may be a small gland adjacent to the caruncles
• Lymphoreticular tissue in all species in this area
• Just caudal to the incisors ,paired orobasal organs,
• thought to be the remnants of the rostral sublingual
gland, reptiles
• Lateral sub lingual recesses ,marked by a longitudinal
fold ,which carries the openings of the minor sublingual
salivary gland
• In cattle -openings are on top of a series of conical
papillae,
• Horse - minor sublingual salivary gland protrudes visibly
SALIVARY GLANDS
• Salivary glands are paired organs that secrete
saliva via their ducts into the oral cavity
• Saliva keeps the mucosa of the mouth moist and is
mixed with the food during mastication to
lubricate the passage of the food bolus during
swallowing and initiate chemical digestion of food.
• Salivary glands are grouped into:
– Minor salivary glands
– Major salivary glands
• Small or minor salivary glands are present in the mucosa of the lips, cheeks,
tongue, palate and the sublingual oral floor.
• These glands produce a mucous secretion.
• The buccal minor salivary glands form larger aggregates ventrally and dorsally.
• In canines the latter is referred to as the zygomatic gland based on its position.
• Ruminants have an additional middle group of buccal glands.
• Most saliva is produced by the major salivary glands.
• These are located at a distance from the oral cavity and drain through ducts.
• These glands produce a more watery (serous) fluid, some of them a serous-
mucous secretion containing the enzyme amylase, which initiates
carbohydrate digestion.
• Saliva consists principally of water, as well as mucin, amylase and salts,
especially sodium bicarbonate.
• The daily production of saliva in the horse is about 40l,in the bov 110–180l,in
the pig 15l.
• Flow of saliva is normally continuous, its rate of secretion is controlled by
sympathetic and parasympathetic in nervation.
• Parasympathetic innervation is provided by the cranial nerves V,VII and IX
and is brought about by olfaction and taste, leading to an increase in saliva
secretion and dilatation of blood vessels.
• The sympathetic fibres originate from the caudal thoracic segments of the
spinal cord, form synapses in the cranial cervical ganglion and reach the
salivary glands in the tunica adventitia of the arteries.
• Stimulation is followed by vasoconstriction, which slows the rate of
production.
• Anxiety, stress or fear leads to a depression of saliva production, but also to
dehydration, which leads to the sensation of thirst.
• Pavlov has shown in his experiments that the flow rate of saliva can be
increased by conditioning the animal to react to other stimuli,such as a
bell.
• Major salivary glands are:
• Parotid salivary gland
• Mandibular salivary gland
• Sublingual salivary glands with:
– Monostomatic sublingual salivary gland
– Polystomatic sublingual salivary gland
• Parotid gland
• Paired organ, lies at the junction of the head and neck, ventral to the auricular cartilage in the retromandibular
fossa
• Especially well developed in herbivores.
• A mixed, serous-mucous, tubuloacinous gland.
• It is in close proximity to the external carotid artery, the maxillary vein and branches of the facial and trigeminal
nerves.
• In the horse it partially overlays the lateral wall of the guttural pouch, which must be taken into consideration
when using an external surgical approach to the guttural pouch.
• The gland is enclosed within a facial covering that projects trabeculae inwards to divide the gland into several
lobules.
• The major collecting ducts pass within these trabeculae to eventually join, forming a single duct that begins at the
rostral aspect of the gland.
• In carnivores and small ruminants this duct passes over the lateral surface of the masseter muscle.
• In the horse,bov and pig it passes medial to the angle of the jaw rostrally and winds around the ventral margin of
the mandible to emerge at the rostral border of the masseter muscle.
• In the horse it lies here just caudal to the linguofacial artery.

• The parotid duct opens into the oral vestibule at the top of a small papilla opposite the third to fifth cheek tooth
depending on the species.
• The gland is vascularised by branches of the maxillary artery and vein.
• It is innervated by branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve, the parasympathetic fibres of which run with the minor
petrosal nerve to the otic ganglion.
• Mandibular gland
• Located close to the angle of the jaw ,partially covered by the parotid salivary gland
• Slightly bigger than the parotid in most dogs and cats, but considerably larger in ruminants.
• In carnivores it is oval in shape, situated subcutaneously, caudal to the monostomatic
salivary gland between the linguofacial and maxillary veins.
• Both the mandibular and the monostomatic salivary glands are of practical importance in
the dog, since they can undergo cystic changes (ranula)which require their removal.
• Produces a mixed mucous and serous secretion, but can also alternate between the two.
• It drains by a single large duct, which passes ventral to the mucosa of the floor of the oral
cavity, close to the lingual frenulum to open with the major sublingual duct on the
sublingual caruncle.

• The linguofacial artery and vein provide vascular supply to the mandibular salivary gland.

• Parasympathetic innervation is provided by fibres from the facial nerve.

• These fibres first run in the chorda tympani to the mandibular branch of the trigeminal
nerve and continue in the lingual branch of the latter to the mandibular ganglion, where
they synapse with postganglionic neurones
• Sublingual gland
• commonly mixed
• consists of :
– Major (monostomatic)salivary gland- situated more caudally and is a compact gland with a single
draining duct.
• The major sublingual salivary duct shares a common opening with the mandibular salivary duct on top of the
sublingual caruncle protruding from the prefrenular part of the floor of the oral cavity.
– Diffuse minor (polystomatic) salivary gland is located more rostrally and opens through several smaller
ducts.
• These openings are located on a longitudinal fold in the lateral sublingual recesses,
• In cattle –on top of the conical papillae located on the fold.
• Dog, compact part fits over rostral extremity of the mandibular gland
• Duct leaves compact part, runs close to mandibular duct
• diffuse part ,only part in horse, thin strip below mucosa of oral floor; many ducts open beside
frenulum
• Both sublingual salivary glands produce a serous-mucoid secretion in which the mucous part
dominates.
• Blood supply and venous drainage is achieved by the lingual artery and vein.
• Innervation is similar to that of the mandibular salivary gland
• The masticatory apparatus consistsof:
– Teeth and gums
– Temporomandibular joint
– Masticatory muscles
• Teeth(dentes)
• Each species has its own characteristic dentition, consisting
of a particular number, type and arrangement of teeth.
• Within the mouth, the teeth exhibit regional variation in
morphology, depending upon their specific function.
• This is referred to as heterodonty
• The teeth undergo a single replacement.
• The first, deciduous set of teeth erupts before, or shortly
after birth.
• As the animal matures, the deciduous teeth are replaced
with a second set of permanent teeth
DENTITION
• mammalian dentition
• complement of teeth is limited to a fairly small number, rarely exceeding
44 in the permanent dentition, determined for each species—
• Unlike most other vertebrates, teeth differently developed in different
regions of the mouth for better performance of special tasks;
• Heterodonty- incisor, canine, premolar, and molar groups
• single replacement of teeth first erupted
• second, stronger set better adapted to larger jaws ,more vigorous
mastication of the adult is (diphyodonty)
• cf polyphyodonty (multiple succession) ,most other vertebrates
• Teeth implanted in sockets set along the margins of the jaws, thecodonty
• Number classification of the teeth in a
particular species are conveniently
represented by a formula(dental formula)
• Diastema - considerable gap between teeth in
the one jaw, most usually for that between the
incisors and premolars.
Structure of the teeth
• Although teeth are highly specialised structures,
modified to suit the needs of individual species,
they share a common, basic architecture
• Each tooth has three components:
– Crown (corona dentis), the exposed portion of the
tooth
– Neck (cervix dentis)
– Root (radix dentis)- is anchored in a bony dental
alveolus (alveolus dentalis)within the upper or lower
jaw
• Surfaces of the teeth
– Vestibular surfaces -directed towards the oral vestibule
– Labial surface-towards the lips
– Buccal surface-towards the cheeks.
– Lingual surface- faces the oral cavity proper/tongue
– Contact surfaces-include the caudally directed distal
surface and the rostrally oriented mesial surface.
– Occlusal surfaces- surface of the tooth that contacts the
opposite arcade
• Cusp (cuspis dentis)-An eminence on the crown may
be pointed or rounded,depending on species.
• The mineralised wall of the tooth surrounds the dental(pulp) cavity
whichcontains the dental pulp (pulpa dentis)
• Dental pulp consists of connective tissue containing blood vessels and an
abundance of nerves.
• Stimulation of sensory nerve fibres elicits pain.
• This results particularly from increased pressure due to inflammation or
localised swelling within the confines of the solid-walled pulp cavity.
• Based on its location, the pulp is divided into the pulpa coronalis,within
the coronal portion of the pulp cavity and the pulpa radicularis, in the
pulp cavity within the root.
• At its proximal end, the pulp cavity tapers to form the narrow root canal
which surrounds the apical foramen
• Blood vessels and nerves traverse the apical foramen and ramify in the
connective tissue of the pulp cavity
• The tooth(dens) is composed of three
mineralised substances:
• Enamel
• Dentin
• Cementum
• Based on the distribution of enamel, teeth can be divided into
three groups
– 1.Simple, or haplodont, teeth- consist of a conical or shovel-shaped
crown covered in a layer of enamel. Typical examples include the
canine teeth of all domestic mammals and the incisors of ruminants.
– 2.Secodont (secare=cut) teeth-distinguished by the presence of two
or more distinct, enamel-capped coronal eminences, in which the
eminences are arranged in a row, are particularly well developed in
carnivores (see sectorial teeth. These include the cheek teeth pig,
referred to as bunodont.
– 3.The enamel layer is characterised by occlusal invaginations
(infundibula)or folding of the enamel wall. These teeth include the
incisors of horses and the cheek teeth of horses and ruminants(except
the simple lower first ruminant premolar).
• Based on their height, teeth are classified as
– Brachydont (low crowned)
– Hypsodont (high-crowned)- there is little distinction between
the crown and the neck; they are thus described as having a
body(corpus dentis) The entire body of hypsodont teeth is
surrounded by enamel and an outer layer of cementum.
– A root develops,but it is relatively short.
– Although the period of growth of hypsodont teeth is longer than
that of brachydont teeth, it is nevertheless limited.
– When growth ceases, the teeth are gradually extruded from the
jaw, creating the impression of ongoing tooth formation.
– Hypsodont teeth include the equine incisors and the cheek teeth
of horses and ruminants.
• In ruminants, semilunar infundibula are present on the occlusal
surface of the premolars and molars(selenodont teeth,selene–
moon).
• This morphology facilitates efficient grinding of food stuffs.
• In the cheek teeth of horses, occlusal invaginations are combined
with infolding of the enamel on the sides of the tooth.
• On the occlusal surface, the mineralised tooth components wear
at different rates.
• The resulting surface contour consists of a series of folded
enamel ridges and depressions containing dentin and cementum.
• This type of tooth,referred to as a lophodont, is ideally suited to
grinding of plant material.
• Dentin
• A yellowish-white substance that encloses the pulp cavity
• It is harder than bone.
• Within the crown, dentin lies on the internal surface of the enamel.
• Dentin is permeated by nerve fibres, located within small dentinal tubules.
• Dentin-producing cells (odontoblasts) recede from the newly formed
dentin to form a continuous layer at the periphery of the pulp cavity.
• Odontoblasts continue to produce dentin throughout the life of the animal.
• As new(secondary) dentin is laid down, the pulp cavity gradually narrows.
• Secondary dentin is distinguishable by its slightly darker colour.
• It forms the major component of the dental star seen in extensively worn
incisors of horses.
• In dogs, radiological assessment of the width of the pulp cavity can be used
as an aid in estimating age.
• Cementum
• Not as hard as enamel and its structure is very similar to that of
bone.
• In haplodont teeth and teeth with prominent cusps, cementum is
limited to the root, where it forms the outer most layer of the
tooth.
• Initially thin, the layer of cementum gradually thickens with
increasing age as new cementum is produced.
• In teeth with invaginated or folded enamel, cementum forms a
thin layer around both the root and crown of the tooth and fills
the base of the infundibula.
• Fibres of the periodontal ligament extend from the cementum to
the surrounding alveolar bone.
• Each tooth of the upper and lower jaw is
anchored to the wall of the
alveolus(alveolusdentalis) by the cementum
and the fibrous periodontal ligament
• Together, these components form a
mineralised sling that holds the tooth within
the alveolus while allowing limited movement
when the tooth is exposed to the mechanical
forces associated with mastication.
• Cementum is more resistant than bone to
pressure-induced erosion.
• This characteristic is useful in orthodontic
procedures in which instruments are used to lever
the tooth against the alveolar wall (e.g. correction
of base narrow canines in the dog).
• The bone undergoes erosion while the tooth
remains unaffected.
• The tooth is then able to occupy the space created
within the bone
• Alveolar processes of the upper and lower jaw are covered by the
gums(gingiva).
• Stratified squamous epithelium lines the robust gingival mucosa, which
rests upon a layer of dense connective tissue.
• The gums surround the neck of the tooth, below the crown.
• They may recede with advancing age, resulting in exposure of the neck.
• In many mammals, apportion of the crown is initially held in reserve
below the gum line.
• This is later extruded to compensate for the effects of tooth wear.
• For this reason, it is useful to distinguish between the “clinical crown”,
comprising the exposed portion of the tooth irrespective of the height
of the gum, and the "anatomical crown", defined as the portion of the
tooth that is covered in enamel.
• Mammalian teeth are classified, from rostral to caudal, as incisors, canines,
premolars and molars.
• The number and arrangement of the different types of teeth is described by
the dental formula for each species
• The dental formula is composed of the abbreviations I
(incisors),C(canines),P(premolars) and M(molars), together with the
number of corresponding permanent teeth on one side of the upper and
lower arcades.
• Individual teeth are named based on the modified Triadan system.
• Although this system permits consistent numbering of teeth across species,
it provides no descriptive information about the highly variable morphology
of the teeth.
• Deciduous teeth are denoted in the dental formula by insertion of the letter
“d”between the abbreviation and the associated number(e.g.Id3 for the
third deciduous incisor).
• Timing of tooth eruption is highly consistent within species.
• It can thus be used to estimate the age of an animal, though tooth
replacement can be delayed by factors such as underdevelopment and
disease.
• There are no deciduous molars in any species of domestic mammal and no
deciduous first premolars in dogs and pigs.
• In horses aged between 2 and 4 years, areas of enlargement may occur at
the ventral margin of the mandible during the period of tooth replacement.
• They are occasionally also seen in the maxilla.
• Referred to colloquially as“bumps”, these swellings oc cur when there is a
discrepancy between the rate of shedding of the deciduous teeth and
growth of the permanent teeth.
• They can result in chewing deficits and, in the maxilla, may impact on
breathing.
 Dentition of the horse
• The haplodont canines and first premolars of the horse are brachydont.
• The remaining teeth are hypsodont; the premolars and molars are
lophodont or selenolophodont in type.
• Equine teeth are highly adapted for the mechanical breakdown of coarse
fodder.
• Corrugated infolding of the enamel casing of the cheek teeth increases
the area of the chewing surface
• Incisors have a sheath-like layer of external enamel that extends almost to
the tip of the root.
• Enamel also lines the infundibulum or dental cup.
• Cementum coats the external surface of the enamel and fills the
infundibulum.
• Before the tooth comes into wear, the external enamel is continuous with
the enamel of the infundibulum.
• From medial to lateral, the incisors of the horse are termed the central, intermediate and corner incisors.
• The permanent incisors wear at a rate of approximately 2mm per year.
• Together with an understanding of the chronology of tooth replacement, the pattern of wear of the lower
incisors permits relatively precise estimation of age in young horses.
• With increasing age, this method becomes less accurate.
• Canine teeth are present in the diastema (interdental space) of male horses, near the corner incisors.
• They have a low crown and a large root.
• In some South American breeds, canine teeth are found routinely in both mares and stallions.
• The first premolar tooth (P1), also known as the wolf tooth, is rudimentary and almost always erupts only in
the upper jaw.
• Lacking a lower counterpart, it has no functional significance.
• The mechanics of mastication may cause wolf teeth to migrate.
• This can result in damage to the gums and may necessitate ex traction.
• In the remaining cheek teeth (P2–P4 and M1–M3), the structure of the teeth of the upper arcade differs
from that of the lower arcade; each of the maxillary teeth has two infundibula, whereas the maxillary teeth
have none.
• The roots of the caudal upper cheek teeth project into the bi partite maxillary sinus.
• Diseased teeth may be accessed by trephination of the caudal maxillary sinus and removed by dental
repulsion.
• In performing this procedure, it is important to be aware that increasing age is associated with a reduction in
depth of the alveolus, an increase in the size of the sinus and rostral displacement of the teeth.
 Ageing of the horse
• Time of eruption ,attritional changes and other features of the
lower incisors can be used in estimating the age of horses
• Reasonably accurate estimates can only be made until around 8
years of age.
• Eruption times for the deciduous incisors (Id=incisivus deciduous)
are as follows:
– Id1: within 6 days (may be erupted at birth),
– Id2: 6 weeks,
– Id3: 6 months.
• Disappearance of the dental cups from the incisors occurs at:
– Id1: 10 months
– Id2: 12 months,
– Id3: 18–24 months
• Based on a depth of 6mm and a rate of wear of 2mm per year, the dental
cup disappears from the lower incisors within three years of coming into
wear.
• In the upper incisors, disappearance of the dental cup takes 6 years
(12mm deep, 2mm per year) and is a less precise measure of age.
• At 8, 9 and 10 years, the dental star appears on the labial side of the
enamel spot (I1, I2, I3).
• The occlusal surface of the incisors is transversely oval in young horses
(6–12 years), later becoming rounded (12–17 years).
• With advancing age, the surface appears triangular (18- 24 years) and
eventually becomes longitudinally oval (24–30 years).
• At 8 to 9 years of age, a dental hook is observed in the upper corner
incisors of some horses.
• This feature may reappear around the age of 13 years.
• A groove (Galvayne’s groove) may also appear, as follows, in
the upper corner incisors:
• Dorsal quarter of the tooth: ca. 10 years
• Dorsal half of the tooth: ca. 15 years
• Entire length of tooth: ca. 20 years
• Ventral half of tooth: ca. 25 years
• Ventral quarter of tooth: ca. 30 years.
• Certain dental abnormalities preclude the ageing of horses by
the characteristics of the teeth.
• These include overbite (overshot bite, parrot mouth),
underbite (undershot bite, sow mouth), excessive wear of the
incisors due to cribbing and crooked incisors.
 Dentition of the cat
• The dentition of the cat is comprised of haplodont teeth and teeth with
prominent cusps
• The teeth are reduced in number compared with other domestic mammals;
P1, M2 and M3 are absent in the maxilla, and P1, P2, M2 and M3 are lacking
in the mandible.
• As a result, the bite of the cat is highly differentiated for cutting.
• The two carnassial teeth, P4 in the upper jaw and M1 in the lower jaw, slide
past one another during mastication, creating a shearing action.
• The dentition of the cat is thus referred to as secondont.
• The teeth are of limited use in estimating age in cats.
• All deciduous incisors are present by 15 days of age.
• Eruption of the remaining deciduous teeth occurs at days 18 to 19 (canines)
and between days 24 and 39 (premolars).
• Replacement of the deciduous teeth begins at 3 ½ months and is complete by
7 months.
 Dentition of the dog
• The extreme variation in the shape of the head and body of modern breeds
of dog has important implications for the teeth and masticatory apparatus.
• The space available for tooth placement and attachment of the masticatory
muscles in brachycephalic, or short-headed, breeds (e.g. pug) differs greatly
from that in dolichocephalic, or long-headed, dogs (e.g. fox terrier).
• The timing of eruption and replacement of teeth likewise exhibits
considerable breed-related and individual variation.
• Thus, as in cats, dentition is not a reliable means of determining age in dogs.
• Measurement of tooth microhardness has recently been identified as a
useful tool for age estimation.
• At present, the procedure is very laborious but is potentially applicable in
forensic investigations.
• The Triadan system is also available for reference to
specific teeth.
• In this system, each tooth is assigned a three-digit number.
• The first digit (in the hundreds place) indicates the
quadrant of the mouth: 1(00) indicates the right upper,
2(00) the left upper, 3(00) the left lower, and 4(00) the
right lower quadrant.
• The other two digits indicate the place of the tooth in the
dental arcade, 01 being the most mesial.
• Thus 102 specifies the upper right second incisor, 409 the
lower right first molar.
• The attachment of the incisors to the alveoli is relatively loose
• The crown of the central and middle upper incisors has three small cusps (central, mesial and
distal).
• Mesial cusps are lacking on the lower incisors.
• Loss of these features through ongoing wear may reduce the incisors to simple prismatic stumps.
• This process is accelerated in dogs that have a predilection for chewing stones.
• The root of the canines is massive.
• It is considerably longer than the crown; its caudal extremity extends beyond the root of the first
premolar.
• The premolars increase in size from rostral to caudal.
• The very large upper P4 has three roots and is known as the carnassial or sectorial tooth(dens
sectorius).
• Root abscesses arising from factures of the carnassial tooth can result in a draining suborbital tract.
• Treatment involves extraction of the affected tooth.
• The upper molars also have three roots, but these are considerably smaller than the roots of P4.
• In the lower jaw, the well-developed M1 is the sectorial tooth.
• It has two large, diverging roots that span almost the entire width of the mandible.
• The caudal molars serve as crushing teeth
• The dentition of the dog, like that of the cat, is secodont; the two
sectorial teeth(upper P4,lower M1) exert a shearing action during
closing of the mouth.
• The deciduous incisors erupt at approximately 4 weeks of age.
• Eruption of the canines occurs around the same time (3–5 weeks).
• The premolars(Pd2,Pd3,Pd4)appear by 6weeks of age, completing
the deciduous dentition.
• Permanent first premolars erupt at 4 to 5 months; they have no
deciduous predecessors.
• Between 3 and 7months of age, the deciduous teeth are replaced,
and the molars erupt.
• After this period, estimation of age based on dentition is difficult
and unreliable.
 Dentition of the pig
• Occlusion in pigs is is ognathic, i.e. the occlusal
surfaces of the upper dental arcade (arcus
dentalis superior)rest upon those of the lower
dental arcade(arcus dentalis inferior)when the
jaws are closed.
• Notable features of the dentition of pigs are the
canines, or tusks, which continue to grow through
out the life of the animal
• The molars bear specialised eminences that are
adapted for crushing of food stuffs.
 Dentition of the bov
• The incisors and canines of ruminants are brachydont teeth and are
haplodont in type.
• The premolars and molars are hypsodont teeth of the selenodont variety.
• Upper incisors and canines are absent in ruminants.
• They are replaced by the dental pad
• In the lower jaw, the canine tooth occupies a relatively rostral position.
• It has become modified to resemble an incisor and ad joins the incisor
group.
• There are no infundibula in the (haplodont) incisor teeth.
• The incisors are designated as central (I1), first intermediate(I2), second
intermediate(I3) and corner (I4) incisors
• Each incisor has a shovel-shaped crown and a distinct neck.
• Even in healthy animals, the incisors are only loosely embedded within
the alveoli
• In older animals, the crown of the incisors may be worn away
completely, with the visible teeth consisting of widely spaced
roots at the alveolar margin.
• In many cases, the teeth fall out before this stage is reached.
• The tongue can be grasped easily through the large diastema
to facilitate examination of the mouth.
• Eruption of the permanent incisors, used for estimating age,
occurs as follows:
• I1:1½years
• I2:2¼years
• I3:3years
• I4:3¾years
• Wear of the incisors gives rise to a
grinding(masticatory)surface.
• Initially narrow, this expands to cover an
increasing proportion of the lingual surface of
the incisor row(approximately 50% by 7 to 8
years of age,100% by 9 to 10 years).
• The cheek teeth have semilunar infundibula;
one infundibulum in each of the premolars,
two infundibula in each molar.
• Estimation of age is based on these dates and on the state of wear of the
incisors.
• Neither factor is very reliable.
• The dates of eruption are influenced by breed and reflect differences in the
general rate of maturation.
• The rate of wear provides a somewhat more useful criterion, though it obviously
depends on the nature of the fodder.
• Wear converts the cutting edge into a surface that gradually broadens.
• The lingual edge of this surface is originally jagged (because of the ridging of the
distal part of the lingual surface of the crown) but becomes smooth when the
tooth is worn down; the change in character occurs at 6 years on the first incisor
and at 7, 8, and 9 years on the second, third, and fourth incisors, respectively.
• The teeth are then said to be “level.”
• Exposure of the root coincides with this alteration in the
• The changes at later ages are too unreliable to be of value.
Dentition of the small ruminants
• Broadly resembles that of cattle.
• The teeth of sheep are often exposed to very rough wear, and tooth
loss (“broken mouth”) is a frequent reason for culling older animals.
• Because of the unequal width of the upper and lower dental
arcades, mastication is unilateral, and although both sides are used
in alternation, most animals tend to favor one.
• The usual action comprises three phases.
• In the first, the jaw is dropped and carried laterally;
• In the second, it is raised while displaced farther to the side;
• In the third, which is performed much more swiftly and vigorously, it
is carried upward and medially so that the tooth crescents of the
lower row engage between those of the upper row as the jaw is
returned to its resting position.