Population and sample

• The term population is used to refer to the entire group of

individuals to whom the findings of a study apply.
TARGET VERSUS ACCESSIBLE POPULATIONS
• Unfortunately, the actual population (called the target
population) to which a researcher would really like to
generalize is rarely available.
• The population to which a researcher is able to generalize,
therefore, is the accessible population.
• The former is the researcher’s ideal choice; the latter, his
or her realistic choice.
• The researcher defines the specific population of interest.
Sampling techniques
• It is often difficult or even impossible for researchers to
study very large populations.
• Hence they select a smaller portion of the population for
study and this is called sample.
• Sampling is the process of selecting the appropriate sample
from a population for a study.
• Two major types of sampling procedures are available to
researchers: probability and nonprobability sampling
Probability sampling
• Probability sampling is defined as the kind of sampling in
which every element in the population has an equal
chance of being selected.
• Probability sampling facilitates the use of inferential
statistics.
• The four types of probability sampling most frequently
used in educational research are simple random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic
sampling.
• Simple Random Sampling
• The best known of the probability sampling procedures is
simple random sampling.
• The basic characteristic of simple random sampling is that
all members of the population have an equal and
independent chance of being included in the random
sample.
Table of Random
Numbers
• Suitable for selecting large sample size.
• It is found in statistical books and computer programmes
for use.
• The procedure is as follows:
1.Define the population.
2.Determine the sample size
3.List and label all members of the population.
4.Enter the table at random and selecting a case.
5.After selecting a case, you can go any direction in the
table but it must be systematic either horizontal or
vertical or diagonal.
6.Cases selected become the sample for the study.
Computer Generated
Random Numbers
• The procedure is just like the table of
random numbers.
• However, it is the computer that
generates the numbers using
Microsoft Excel.
• You are asked to conduct an opinion survey on
a college campus with a population of 1000
students. How would you proceed to draw a
random sample of 100 students for your
survey?
Stratified Sampling
• When the population consists of a number
of subgroups, or strata, that may differ in
the characteristics being studied, it is often
desirable to use a form of probability
sampling called stratified sampling.
• In stratified sampling, you first identify the strata of
interest and then randomly draw a specified number of
subjects from each stratum.
• The basis for stratification may be geographic or may
involve characteristics of the population such as income,
occupation, gender, age, year in college, or teaching level.
• In this kind of sampling, you may either take equal
numbers from each stratum or select in proportion to the
size of the stratum in the population.
• When proportions are used, it is proportional stratified
sampling.
• Proportional stratified sampling is applied when the
characteristics of the entire population are the main
concern in the study.
• Systematic Sampling
• This procedure involves drawing a sample by taking every
Kth case from a list of the population.
• First, you decide how many subjects you want in the
sample (n).
• Know the total number of members in the population (N),
• Simply divide N by n and determine the sampling interval
(K) to apply to the list.
• Select the first member randomly from the first K
members of the list.
• Select every Kth member of the population for the
sample.
• You are working on an “attitude of students towards
science” research in a school with a population of 100.
Although the school is mixed, you realized that the female
population is 25. Describe how you will select a sample size
of 40 such that females will be duly represented as they
are in the population?
• For example, let us assume a total population of 500
subjects and a desired sample size of 50: K = N/n =
500/50 = 10.
• Start near the top of the list so that the first case can be
randomly selected from the first 10 cases, and then
select every tenth case there after every 10th person is
included in the sample.
• Or you can select randomly from the population and
that becomes the starting point.
• How different is systematic sampling from simple
random sampling?
• You are interested in conducting a survey on university
students with a population of 2000 level 200 students.
How would you proceed to draw a random sample of
500 students for your survey using the systematic
sampling technique?
• Cluster Sampling
• In this a unit chosen is not an individual but, rather, a
group of individuals who are naturally together.
• These individuals constitute a cluster insofar as they are
alike with respect to characteristics relevant to the
variables of the study.
• It is essential that the clusters actually included in your
study be chosen at random from a population of
clusters.
• Another procedural requirement is that once a cluster is
selected, all the members of the cluster must be
included in the sample.
 Non probability sampling
• This involves non-random procedures for selecting the
members of the sample.
• In non-probability sampling, there is no assurance that
every element in the population has a chance of being
included.
• Its main advantages are convenience and economy.
• The major forms of nonprobability sampling are
convenience sampling, purposive sampling, and quota
sampling.
• Convenience Sampling
• It involves using available cases for a study.
• It is regarded as the weakest of all sampling procedures.
• If you do use convenience sampling, be extremely cautious
in interpreting the findings and know that you cannot
generalize the findings.
• Purposive Sampling
• In purposive sampling (judgment sampling) sample
elements judged to be typical, or representative, are
chosen from the population.
• The assumption is that errors of judgment in the selection
will counterbalance one another.
• The critical question in purposive sampling is the extent to
which judgment can be relied on to arrive at a typical
sample.
• Quota Sampling
• Quota sampling involves selecting typical cases from
diverse strata of a population.
• The quotas are based on known characteristics of the
population to which you wish to generalize.
• Elements are drawn so that the resulting sample is a
miniature approximation of the population with respect
to the selected characteristics.
 Instruments
• Every research aims at collecting data to make an informed
decision.
• The tools used to collect the necessary data are called
research instruments.
• There are a lot of research instruments but we will consider
questionnaires, interviews, observation and tests.
• Selecting appropriate and useful instruments is critical to
the success of any research study.
 Questionnaires
• Questionnaires are research tools through which people
are asked to respond to the same set of questions in a
predetermined order.
• Why use questionnaire?
• They are low cost in terms of time and money.
• In contrast to interviews, questionnaires can be sent to hundreds
or even thousands of respondents at relatively little cost.
• The inflow of data is quick and from many people.
• Respondents can complete the questionnaire at a time and
place that suits them.
• Data analysis of closed questions is relatively simple, and
questions can be coded quickly.
• Respondents’ anonymity can be assured.
Types of items (questions) on the
questionnaire
• Open questions
• Open questions have no definitive response.
• Hence, the questionnaire must be designed in such a way
that respondents are able to provide such a response
without the restriction of lack of space.
• The advantage of open questions is the potential for
richness of responses, some of which may not have been
anticipated by the researchers.
• It is however difficult to analyse.
• Closed questions
• A closed question is one to which the respondent is offered
a set of pre-designed replies.
• Eg: ‘Yes/No’, ‘True or False’, multiple-choice responses, or
is given the opportunity to choose from a selection of
numbers representing strength of feeling or attitude.
• Closed questions may restrict the richness of alternative
responses.
• They are easy to analyze.
 Likert Scale
• A Likert scale (a summated rating scale) assesses attitudes
toward a topic by presenting a set of statements about the
topic and asking respondents to indicate for each whether
they strongly agree, agree, are undecided, disagree, or
strongly disagree.
• The various agree– disagree responses are assigned a
numeric value, and the total scale score is found by
summing the numeric responses given to each item.
• This total score assesses the individual’s attitude toward
the topic.
• A Likert scale is constructed by assembling a large number
of statements about an object, approximately half of which
express a clearly favorable attitude and half of which are
clearly unfavorable.
• Neutral items are not used in a Likert scale. It is important
that these statements constitute a representative sample
of all the possible opinions or attitudes about the object.
 Guidelines for good questionnaire
• Avoid vague phrases.
• Avoid leading questions. Eg: Why do you think the
organization has been successful in the past three years’?
• Avoid double questions.
• Try to avoid language that is prejudicial or contains sexist,
or racist stereotyping.
• Try to avoid hypothetical questions such as: ‘Suppose you
were asked to …’
• Avoid questions that use negatives and double negatives.
• Eg:Do you feel that without a parent/teacher association
teachers are unable to express their views to parents clearly?
Semantic differential
• Consists of two opposing adjectives.
• Respondents choose where they lean towards.
• To me, electronic mail is
1 Important Unimportant

2 Boring Interesting
3 Relevant Irrelevant
4 Exciting Unexciting
5 Means Nothing Means A Lot

6 Appealing Unappealing

7 Fascinating Mundane
8 Worthless Valuable

9 Involving Uninvolving
10 Not Needed Needed
Choosing a statistical test
• There are very many statistical tests available to the
researcher.
• The test one uses depends on a lot of factors such as :
• the purpose of the analysis
• (e.g. to describe or explore data, to test a hypothesis, to seek
correlations, to identify the effects of one or more independent
variables on a dependent variable, etc)
• the kinds of data with which one is working.
• the scales of data being used
• the number of groups in the sample
• the assumptions in the tests
• whether the samples are independent of each other or
related to each other.
• Frequency
• Percentage
• Mean
• Chi-square for independence
• Example of research question: What is the
relationship between gender and dropout rates
from therapy?
• What you need:
• one categorical independent variable (e.g. sex:
males/ females); and
• one categorical dependent variable (e.g. dropout:
Yes/No).
• You are interested in the number of people in each
category (not scores on a scale).
• Correlation
• Example of research question: Is there a
relationship between age and optimism
• scores? Does optimism increase with age?
• What you need: two continuous variables (e.g.,
age, optimism scores)
• Independent-samples t-test
• Example of research question: Are males more
optimistic than females?
• What you need:
• • one categorical independent variable with only
two groups (e.g. sex: males/females);
• one continuous dependent variable (e.g. optimism
score).
Type of test to use