Course: Solar Thermal Systems

Text/Reference Books:
 Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes by Duffie and Beckman
 Principles of Solar Energy by Y. Goswami, F. Kreith, J.F. Kreider
 Planning and Installing Solar Thermal Systems
 Solar-Assisted Air-Conditioning in Buildings by Hans-Martin
Henning

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 2

 Grading
Policy

1. Quizzes 10 %

2. Mids 30 %
3. Project 10 %

4. Final Exam 50 %
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Total 100
%

Note: Minor in % marks allocated to quizzes and projects/presentations are

adjustments
possible/expected
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 3
 Educational Objectives

 Course will focus on the fundamentals and applications of solar thermal energy systems

 It is a undergraduate level study of general principles of Solar Thermal Systems, their types and
sizing with regard to their particular application

 The course intends to cover the key features of Solar Radiation, its availability and its conversion
into useful heat at desired temperatures for various Heating and/or Cooling Processes

 The course will render a strong foundation for UG students to do their research work at BSc level
in the field of Solar Thermal Engineer

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 4

 Course Contents

 Introduction to Solar Energy and Solar Radiation

Introduction to solar energy, physics of the sun and its energy transport, thermal
radiation fundamentals, sun earth geometric relationship, solar radiation, angles for
tracking surfaces, beam and diffuse components of solar radiation, surface tilt, shadow
determination

 Absorbed Radiation, Radiation Transmission Through Glazings

Extraterrestrial and terrestrial Irradiation, radiation on surfaces, optical
properties of cover systems, Reflection of radiation, by
sloped
transmittance-absorptance
absorption product, absorbed solar measuring
glazing,solar
radiation, radiation

 Components of Solar Thermal Systems

Solar collectors (flat plate collectors, vacuum tube collectors, concentrators etc.), heat
storage, solar circuit (pumps, valves, expansion tanks, heat transfer fluids, etc.),
controller
Course Contents—contd--
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 5
 Course Contents

 Thermal Analysis of Flat Plate and Concentrating Solar Collectors

Description of flat-plate collectors, basic flat-plate energy balance equation, collector
overall heat loss coefficient, collector heat removal factor and flow factor, liquid heater
plate geometries, air heaters, measurements of collector performance, collector
characterizations, sizing of a collector for an application, description of concentrating
collectors and configurations, thermal and optical performance analysis of concentrating
collectors
 Solar Water Heating and Air-conditioning Systems
Passive systems, thermosiphon, active systems, direct and indirect heating systems, solar
space heating, overview of various solar cooling technologies, absorption and adsorption
cooling cycles, desiccant cooling systems
 Other Solar Thermal Applications
Overview of other solar thermal application e.g., solar drying, solar thermal power plants,
solar cooking etc.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 6

 Outcomes

 After completion of the course, one will be able:

 to understand the overall schematic of thermal systems, their advantages and
solar constraints of using sun as an energy
resource
 to explain the nature and types of solar radiation, sun-earth geometrical relationship
 to estimate the total amount of solar radiation available and absorbed on a surface for a given
location

 to identify the components of a solar thermal system and to design a basic lay out of a solar
thermal system for a certain heating and/or cooling application
 to design and perform a detailed thermal analysis of the flat plate and/or concentrating solar
collectors

 to describe and list the various types of solar water heating and solar based air-conditioning
system
 Assist in installation of solar collectors, water heater and/or storage tanks, piping and piping
insulation
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME
 Solar
Radiation
Radiation
Hot object in vacuum chamber will eventually cool down and reach thermal equilibrium with
its surroundings by a heat transfer mechanism: Radiation
 Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require the presence of a
material medium to take place

 Electromagnetic Waves or Electromagnetic Radiation ─ represent the energy emitted by

matter
as a result of the changes in the Electronic Configurations of the atoms or molecules

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITE 9

CEME/ C
 Solar
Radiation
Radiation
 Radiation: Transfer of energy via Electromagnetic Waves that travel at the speed of light
 Electromagnetic Energy/Waves is a term used to describe all the different kinds of
energies released into space by stars such as the Sun
o It represent Energy emitted by matter as a result of the changes in the Electronic
Configurations of the atoms or molecules
 Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their Frequency ν or Wavelength λ

o Speed of propagation in a medium c is related to the speed of light in a vacuum co

c = co / n n = index of refraction of that medium
 Propagation of Electromagnetic radiation takes place in the form of discrete
quanta,
quantum havingeach
energy of =>
h is Plank’s constant, h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 10

 Solar
Radiation
Radiation
 Electromagnetic Radiation encountered in practice covers a wide range
of
wavelengths
o Spectrum includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, thermal radiation, microwaves, and
Electromagnetic
radio waves
o Gamma Rays: produced by nuclear reactions
o X-rays: by bombardment of metals with high-energy electrons
o Microwaves: by special types of electron tubes such as klystrons
and magnetrons

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 11

 Solar
Radiation
Radiation

 Short-wavelength gamma rays and X-rays are primarily of concern to Nuclear

Engineers
 long-wavelength microwaves and radio waves are of concern to Electrical
Engineers
 Typeof electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to Heat Transfer is the
Thermal Radiation
o emitted as a result of energy transitions of molecules, atoms,
and
electrons of a substance
o Temperature is a measure of the strength of these activities at microscopic
level
o Represent portion of Electromagnetic Spectrum that extends from about
0.1 to 100 µm

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 1

2
 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation
o Light is simply the Visible Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that lies between 0.40 and 0.76
µm

 Body that emits some radiation in the Visible Range is called a Light
Source
 Sun is obviously our primary light source

 Any body above the temperature of Absolute Zero (-273.15 o C), emit
Thermal Radiation to their surrounding environment
 Rate of radiation emission increases with increasing
thermal
Temperature
 Radiation differs from other Heat Transfer Mechanisms as it does not
require the presence of a material medium to take place

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 13

 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation
 Radiation usually considered to be a Surface Phenomenon for solids that are Opaque to thermal
radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks
o radiation emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the surface
o radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface
 maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature T s (in K or
R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann Law as:

Ϭ = Stefan–Boltzmann Constant
= 5.67 X 10-8 W/m2 · K4 or 0.1714

10-8 Btu/h · ft2 · R4

o idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a Blackbody, and the
radiation emitted by a Blackbody is called Blackbody Radiation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 14

 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation
 Radiation
emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature

ε = Emissivity of the surface 0≥ε≥1

 Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its surroundings, such
as Sun
o rate at which all such radiation is incident on a unit
area of the surface as the Irradiation G

o Radiant Energy absorbed per unit surface area:

Mechanical Engineering icMalEEnNUSginTeering Dept. CEME 15 1

MDeepch
ta
.CnE 5
 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation

 Absorptivity (α): Fraction of radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface
0≥α≥1
 Blackbody absorbs entire radiation incident on it
⇒ A Blackbody is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as it is a perfect emitter. (ε = 1)

 If α < 1 and surface is Opaque, portions of the irradiation are reflected

 If surface is semi-transparent, portions of the irradiation may also be transmitted
 α depends on the nature of the irradiation, as well as on the surface itself
E.g. Absorptivity of a surface to solar radiation may differ from its absorptivity to radiation
emitted by the walls of a furnace
 In many engineering problems:
o liquids can be considered Opaque to radiation heat transfer
o gases can be considered transparent to it
o Solids can be opaque (as is the case for metals) or semitransparent (as is the case for
thin sheets
of some polymers and some semiconducting materials)
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME
16
 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

17
 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation
 When a surface of emissivity ε and surface area A
at an absolute temperature Ts is completely
s
enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface at absolute temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such
as air) that does not intervene with radiation

Net rate of Radiation Heat Transfer between these two surfaces is:

Here, emissivity and the surface area of the surrounding surface do not
have any effect on the net radiation heat transfer
For per unit area of the surface (Heat Flux):

OR

Where, hr = Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient

⇒ Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 1
8
 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation
o Qrad to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air occurs parallel to Conduction (or
Convection, if there is bulk gas motion) between the surface and the gas

Total rate of heat transfer from the surface is then:

 Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or

natural convection, but negligible relative to forced
convection

 Thus radiation in Forced Convection applications is

usually disregarded, especially when surfaces involved
have low emissivities and low to moderate temperatures

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 1

9
 Solar Radiation

Thermal Radiation
Example
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25 oC. The
outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200 oC and 0.8,
respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with
free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss
from the surface per unit length of pipe?

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 20

 Solar
Radiation
Black Body Radiation
 Blackbody is an ideal concept and refers to a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation
o blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of Wavelength and Direction
o blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area
 Radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area

Above Eq. gives the total blackbody emissive power Eb, which is the sum of the
radiation emitted over all wavelengths
Spectral Blackbody Emissive Power

amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at an absolute temperature T per unit time, per
unit surface area, and per unit wavelength, Planck’s Eq. :

Mechanical Engineering Dept.

CEME 38
 Solar
Radiation
Black Body Radiation

As temperature of a blackbody
increases, the spectral
distribution and power of
emission change light

Hotter an object is, greater is energy emission at

every wavelength and the shorter is the wavelength
for the maximum emission

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 39

 Solar
Radiation
Solar Radiation
 Solar Radiation is the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the SUN
o nearly all of it falls into the wavelength band 0.3 –3 μm
o Almost half of solar radiation is Light (i.e., it falls into the Visible Range), with the remaining
being Ultraviolet and Infrared

 The time it takes light from the sun to reach the Earth is 8 minutes and 20 seconds
 Solar interior is a Nuclear Furnace that releases energy in much the same way as man-
made Thermonuclear Explosions
 Solar Mass is composed predominantly of the two lightest elements,
o hydrogen, H, makes up about 70% of the mass, and
o helium, He, about 27%
o remaining 3% of solar matter is made up of all other elements

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 21

 Solar
Radiation
Solar Radiation
 The Fusion Reaction in which Hydrogen (i.e. four protons) combines to form Helium (i.e. one
helium nucleus) accompanied by a 0.7 percent loss of mass and converted to energy is the
source of energy in the Sun 4
2 He
2
H
1

3
H
1

o mass of the Helium Nucleus is less than that of the Four Protons, mass having been lost in
the reaction and converted to energy
o Reaction is extremely Exothermal and
the free energy per He nuclei is 25.5 eV
or 1.5×108
kcal/g (6.28 ×1011 kj/kg) → converted
directly to Electromagnetic Radiation
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME
22
 Solar
Radiation
The Sun’s Structure
1. Core:
o Nuclear Furnace, 0.23 rs, 40 %
2. Radiative Zone: 3. Convective Zone:
mass, 15 % volume, 90 % of o 0.23 rs – 0.7 rs, Temp: 5-2 × 106 K, o 0.7 rs – rs, Temp: 2 -0 × 106 K,
Energy generated, Temp: 8.40 × ρ=10-1 g/cm3 ρ=10-7 g/cm3
106 K, P = 109 atm, ρ=100 g/cm3

7. Sunspot 4. Photosphere:
o Regions of intense o 500 km thick, Temp: 5780 K,
magnetic fields appear on What we see on Earth, Light
the surface reaches earth in 8 min

8. Granulus 5. Chromophere:
o Turbulence, o An orange red layer of
bubbling motion atmosphere thousands of mile
caused by thick, ρ=10-4 g/cm3
convection currents
9. Prominence 6. Corona:
o Large, bright feature extending o Uppermost part of the
outward, extends over many atmosphere, millions of miles
thousands of kilometers thick , ρ=10-6 g/cm

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 23

 Solar
Radiation
The Sun’s Structure

 Outer layer of the Convective Zone is called the Photosphere

 Edge of the Photosphere is sharply defined

 essentially opaque, as gases of which it is
composed are strongly ionized and able to
absorb and emit a Continuous Spectrum of
Radiation
 It is the source of most Solar Radiation

Mechanica Engineering Dept. CEME

l 24
 Solar
Radiation
Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation
 Radiation emitted by the SUN, which is considered to be a blackbody at 5780 K reaches its
peak in
the visible region of the spectrum

A standard spectral irradiance curve based

on high altitude and space measurements is
shown here which is found to be similar to
the 5780K blackbody spectrum.

The peak solar intensity is 2029 w/m2 at

a wavelength of 0.48 m.
The solar spectrum varies from 0.2 – 3.0 m,

Mechanical Engineering Dept. EME 40

C
 Solar
radiation
Relation of SUN-Earth Dimensions
SUN EARTH SUN/EARTH

293
5870 293

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 25

 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

 Amount and intensity of Solar Radiation reaching the Earth’s surface depends on the Geometric
Relationship of the Earth with respect to the Sun
o Elliptical path of the Earth varies from 14.7 × 107 km in early January → closest distance to the
Sun, called Perihelion
to 15.2 × 107 km in early July—the farthest distance, called Aphelion
o Earth is about 4% closer to the Sun at the Perihelion than the Aphelion

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 26

 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

 Average Earth–Sun distance of 14.9 × 107km is defined as the Astronomical Unit (AU)
o Sun subtends an angle of 32′ on the Earth at a 1 AU distance
o Earth–Sun distance (E0) in Astronomical Units:

Where,

n is the day of the year

(1 ≤ n ≤ 365)

o Another Eq. for Eo is:

Mechanical eering Dept. CEME

Engin 27
 Solar
Radiation
Solar Energy
 Sun approximates a black body at ~6000K, radiating with a power density of H sun ≈ 73 MW/m²
 Power density at a distance D from sun if given by:

Sun

R = 6.96 × 105 km
Earth

R = 6.35 × 103 km

D = 1.5 × 106 km

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 41

 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt

 Rotation axis of the Earth is tilted 23.45° from being perpendicular to the ecliptic plane
 Angle between Sun and a Point on the surface of Earth varies throughout the year
⇒ Length of day also changes
 Earth’s Rotation is responsible for day and night, while its Tilt is responsible for change of seasons

Mechanical gineering Dept. CEME

En 28
 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 29

 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--
 when Northern Axis is pointing to the direction of Sun, it is Summer in the Northern Hemisphere and
Winter in the Southern Hemisphere
 Earth is about 4% further from Sun during Southern Hemisphere Winter as compared to Northern
Hemisphere Winter

⇒ Southern winters are colder than Northern

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

30
 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--

 Both Hemispheres receive the same amount of light, but the Northern
receives it at a more Glancing Angle;
 hence, it is less concentrated and does not warm up as much as the
Southern Hemisphere

Mechanica Engineering Dept. CEME

l 31
 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--
Equinox

o Equinox sounds like equal

o Equal day and night

o direct sunlight on
both
Hemispheres
Equally
o Sun's rays are directly overhead at
the equator on the Spring and Fall
Equinoxes

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 32

 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--
Solstice = Maximum Tilt of a Hemisphere

o Hemisphere Winter
Solstice (December 21)
Northern

Mechanical Engineering Dept. 33

CEME
 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--
Solstice = Maximum Tilt of a Hemisphere

o Northern Hemisphere
Summer
Solstice (June 21)

Mechanical Engineering . CEME 34

Dept
 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricon
o Tropic of Cancer is a line of latitude located at 23.5 degrees North of the equator
o Tropic of Capricorn is a line of latitude located at 23.5 degrees South of the equator

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 35

 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricon

o Sun's rays are directly overhead at the Tropic

of Cancer (23.5 degrees North of the
Equator)---on Summer Solictice (June 21)

o Sun's rays are directly overhead at the Tropic

of Capricon (23.5 degrees South of
the
Equator)---on Winter Solictice (Dec 21)

Mechanical ng Dept. CEME 36

Engineeri
 Solar
Radiation
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
Earth’s Tilt—contd--

 Day length is determined by the length of time Sun is above the horizon and varies throughout the
year as the Earth–Sun geometric relationships change
 Earth’s Tilt has a great effect on what an observer sees, depending on whether he or she is in the
Northern or Southern Hemisphere

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year

Observer in Northern Hemisphere Observer in Southern Hemisphere

Mechanical ineering pt. CEME 37

Eng De
 Solar
Radiation
Solar Radiation

Solar Energy Potential

 Only 0.1% of the total amount of energy received on the earth, when converted at an efficiency of
10% would generate four times the world’s total generating capacity of about 3000 GW

 One Hour of Insolation is equivalent to more than the World’s Energy Consumption for an Entire Year

 Solar Energy that hits One Square Mile in a year is equivalent to 4 Million Barrels of Oil

 Solar Energy that hits the Earth every second is equivalent to 4 Trillion 100-watt Light Bulbs

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 42

 Solar
Radiation
FORECAST LIFETIME OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS RESERVES
Estimate of secured oil reserves is The figures for natural gas reserves
between 118 and 180 billion tonnes vary from 131 to 153 trillion m3

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 43

 Solar
Radiation
Potential for Different Energy Carriers

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 44

 Solar
Radiation
Yearly average sums of global radiation on the earth

Depending on the geographic location the yearly global radiation on a

horizontal surface may vary between 1100 (Europe) and 2200 kWh/m2 (South
America, Africa, Australia).

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

45
 Solar
radiation
The Solar Constant
 The Solar Constant Gsc is the energy received from the sun, per unit time, on a unit area of surface,
kept perpendicular to the direction of radiation, at a mean earth-sun distance, outside the earth
atmosphere
Gsc = 1367 W/m2 = 433 Btu/ft2 hr = 4.92 MJ/m2 hr

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 46

 Solar
Radiation
The Solar Constant
 Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is also called Extraterrestrial Radiation
 This value varies by ± 3% as the earth orbits the sun and earth-sun distance varies

Gon = Extraterrestrial radiation incident on the plane

normal to the radiation on the nth day of the year

Gsc = 1367 W/m2

Mechanical Engineering CEME

Dept. 47
 Solar
Radiation
Depletion of Solar Radiation by the Atmosphere
 The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere containing
o various gases,
o dust and other suspended particles,
o water vapor and
o clouds of various types
 solar radiation during its passage in the atmosphere gets partly

o Absorbed, (in water vapor, Ozone, CO2 , O2 in certain wavelengths)

o Scattered (by molecules of different gases → Rayleigh scattering, and small dust particles → Mie
scattering)
o Reflected in different wavelength bands selectively (due to clouds, particles of larger size and
other materials in the atmosphere)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 48

 Solar
Radiation
Depletion of Solar Radiation by the Atmosphere

5250 oC Black
body spectrum

Top of
atmosphere

At earth’s Surface

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

49
 Solar
Radiation
Depletion of Solar Radiation by the Atmosphere

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 50

 Solar
Radiation
Air Mass
The extent of Radiation Depletion at any given time also depends on the length of travel of sun’s rays
through the atmosphere
 Ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beam radiation passes to the mass it would pass
through if the sun were at Zenith (directly overhead)

θz is known as Zenith Angle

 αz is known as Altitude Angle → depends on

θz location, time of the day and day of the year

 Smaller the altitude angle, larger will be the

αz depletion of radiation

Mechanical Engineering pt. CEME 51

De
 Solar
Radiation
Air Mass
When the sun is vertically above a location the sunlight takes the shortest path through
the
atmosphere
 With decreasing Altitude Angle αz  the path through the atmosphere is longer, causes increased
absorption and scattering of the solar radiation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 52

 Solar
Radiation
Components of Solar Radiation
Direct/Beam

Diffused

Direct/Beam
Diffused

Reflected

Mechanic Engineering Dept. CEME

al 53
 Solar
Radiation
Components of Solar Radiation
Direct Radiation or Beam Radiation

 Solar radiation which reaches on the earth surface without being scattered by the atmosphere
Diffuse Radiation

 Radiation which gets reflected, absorbed or scattered is not completely lost in the atmosphere and
comes back on the surface of the earth in the Short Wavelength Region

Global or Total Radiation

 Sum of the diffuse and direct radiation on the surface of the earth
Reflected Radiation

 Short wave radiation reflected from other surfaces

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 54

 Solar
Radiation
We are concerned about the:
Portion of the Electromagnetic Radiation emitted from the Sun in the wavelength range of 0.25 – 3.0
m (micron)

 Solar Geometry i.e. sun and its position in the sky, the direction of direct (beam radiation) on
variously inclined and oriented surfaces

 Extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface which is the limit of the solar radiation on the
surface of the earth

 Earth; its motion, orientation and tilt with respect to the sun effecting the Availability of solar
radiation

 Earth’s atmosphere responsible for the reduction due to Absorption, Scattering and Reflection of
Solar Radiation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 55

 Solar
Radiation
Irradiance (W/m2), G

 The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area of surface
Irradiation I
(J/m2)
 Incident energy per unit area on a surface - determined by integration of irradiance over
a
specified time, usually an hour or a day
Insolation
 Insolation is a term used only specific to irradiation in the solar energy spectrum
Radiosity
 Rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface, per unit area, by combined emission, reflection and
transmission

Emissive Power

 Rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface, per unit area, by emission only
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 56
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Latitude and Longitude

Latitude  identifies the north to south location of a point on the Earth

Longitude  identifies the east to west location of a point on the Earth, by measuring the angular distance
from the Greenwich Meridian (or Prime Meridian, where longitude is 0)

Mechanical Engineering CEME

Dept. 57
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Solar Time

 Solar Time is the time used in all sun-angle relationship and it does not coincide with Local Clock
(standard time) time
 It is necessary to convert Standard Time to Solar Time by applying two corrections:
o 1st: A constant correction for the difference in longitude between the Observer’s Meridian (longitude)
and the meridian on which the local standard time is based
 sun takes 4 min to transverse 1 0 of longitude
o 2nd: correction is from the equation of time, which takes into account the Perturbations in the earth’s
rate of rotation which affect the time the sun crosses the observer’s meridian
 This variation is called as Equation of Time (EOT) and is available as average values for different
months of the year
 An approximate equation for calculating EOT given by Spencer (1971) is:

min 1

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 63

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles

± 2

LStT: Local Standard Time LSM: Local Standard Time Merdian

LON: Local longitude

+ve if LON is to the east of LSM, -ve if LON is to the west of LSM

Example

At Islamabad, what is the solar time corresponding to 10:30 AM central time on February 3?

Example

Calculate the LST at Karachi at 12:30 standard time on June 19?

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 64

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Basic Solar Angles

Latitude, ϕ: Angle between the lines joining O and P and the projection of OP on the Equatorial Plane,
i.e., ϕ = angle <POA

Φ
δ
ω

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 58

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Basic Solar Angles
Hour Angle, ω: angle between the projection of OP on the equatorial plane i.e., the line OA and the
projection of the line (OO’) joining the center of the earth to the center of the sun, i.e., the line OB

ω  Angular displacement of the sun towards east

or west of the local meridian due to rotation of the
earth on its axis at 15o per hour
o Morning  Negative
o Afternoon Positive
o Noon Zero
 A measure of the time of the day with
respect to Solar Noon
Φ
ω = ± 0.25 × (No. of minutes from local δ
solar noon) ω

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 59

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Basic Solar Angles

Declinition, δ: angle between the line joining the center of the earth and sun and its projection
on the equilateral plane, the angle between line OO’ and OB

 For Northern Hemisphere, the declination varies

from about +23.5o on June 21st (summer
solstice) to -23.5o December 21st (winter
on solstice)

 At Equinoxes, i.e., on March 21st and September Φ

δ
21st the declination is 0o
ω

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 60

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Basic Solar Angles
Declinition-----contd..

  23.45 sin 3
 60 284 n 
  3 6 5   3

O n is the day of the year
R

Mechanical neering Dept. CEME 6

Engi 1
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Declinition-----contd..

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 62

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Derived Solar Angles
Solar Altitude Angle, αs: angle between sun’s rays and the projection of sun’s rays onto a horizontal
plane

s  sin1 (cos.cos.cos  4

sin  .sin  )
θs

αs

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 65

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Derived Solar Angles
Altitude Angle-----Contd..
 Solar Altitude Angle, αs is maximum at solar noon, since hour angle is zero
 Max. Altitude angle αs-max (solar noon) on any particular day for any particular location is given
by
substituting ω = 0o in the expression for αs:

 smax  2  (   ) 5
θs

αs

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

66
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Derived Solar Angles
Sunrise/Sunset Hour angle, ωs: Eq. for Altitude Angle αs can also be used for finding the time of sunrise,
sunset and sunshine hours as the Altitude Angle (αs) is 0o at both sunrise and sunset.
 Sunrise and Sunset Hour Angle ωs is:

s  cos1 ( tan.tan ) 6

θs
 ω at local solar noon is 0°, with each 15° of
longitude equivalent to 1ω αs
 day length is twice the sunset hour

⇒ Day Length or possible sunshine

hours,
N, is given by
2 s 7
N
15
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME
67
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Example

Calculate the total day length (Sunshine hours) for the city of Islamabad on 21st june.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 68

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Derived Solar Angles

Zenith Angle, θz: angle between sun’s rays and the surface normal to the horizontal plane at the position
of the observer

θs

αs

  2   s
8
z

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

69
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Derived Solar Angles
Solar Azimuth Angle, γ: angle in the horizontal plane measured from due north (for Southern Hemisphere)
or from due South (for Northern Hemisphere) to the horizontal projection of the sun’s rays
9
 1  c o s  . s i n   c o s  . c o s  . s i n    1  c o s  s i n  
cos  c o s s sin  c o s s 


westward is designated as θs
+ve
αs

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

70
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Azimuth and Elevation
 Daily and seasonal angular dependence at a particular location given by Azimuth and Elevation (or
Zenith or Altitude) angle
 Both elevation and azimuth vary through the day
 Maximum and minimum value depend on latitude and season

Mechanical g Dept. CEME 71

Engineerin
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles

Example

Find the solar altitude and azimuth angle at 2h after local noon on June 15 for a city located
at 40 oN latitude. Also find the sunrise and sunset hours and the day length.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 72

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Incidence Angle of Sun’s rays, θ
 Angle between the sun’s rays or Beam Radiation and the normal to the surface under consideration
 If surface is horizontal then θ = θz
 Angle of incidence θ depends upon:
oLocation on Earth Which are defined in terms of Basic Solar Angles
oTime of the day i.e. the three parameters are defined in terms of Latitude, Hour Angle and
Declination, respectively.
oDay of the year

Angle of Incidence for Horizontal Surfaces

 Angle of incidence is equal to Zenith Angle

αs

  z  2   s
10

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC

CEME/ 73
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Incident Angle of Sun Rays for Tilted Surfaces, θ

 For an Arbitrary Oriented Surface (shaded) that is exposed to solar radiation, angle of incidence of solar
radiation on the tilted surface depends upon its orientation
 Additional Angles are required to be defined to find the angle
of incidence on the tilted surfaces

Surface Azimuth Angle, γ: angle between the projection of t

he
normal to the surface and south

o When surface is facing south, γ = 0 o

o When surface is facing west, γ = 90 and so on…

o

o Displacements east of south are negative and west of

south are positive

Mechanical Engineering Dept.

CEME/HI TEC
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Incident angle of sun rays for tilted surfaces, θ -- contd--

Solar Azimuth Angle, γs: angle between the projection of sun's

rays and the horizontal plane due south on the earth's surface

o Positive Values of γs indicate Sun is west of south and

Negative Values indicate Sun is east of south

Surface-solar Azimuth, γss: angle between horizontal

projection of normal to a surface and the horizontal γss
projection of the sun's rays

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 75

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Solar angles for a horizontal solar Solar angles for a tilted surface facing south
surface facing south with an arbitrary surface azimuth angle

Mechanical Engineering CEME 76

Dept.
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Incident angle of sun rays for tilted surfaces, θ Contd…
 A general relationship for the angle of incidence on a surface of any orientation:

11

β :Slope, the angle between the plane of the

surface and the horizontal
γ :Surface azimuth angle
 For Horizontal surfaces, β = 0 o and θ = θz => From
Eq. (11)
12
 For vertical surfaces, β = 90 : => From Eq. (11)
o 13

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 77

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Incident angle of sun rays for tilted surfaces, θ Contd…
 For a south-facing, tilted surface in the Northern Hemisphere
γ = 0o => From Eq. (11):

cos  sin sin cos  cos sin sin   cos cos sin   cos cos cos
14
cos
which can be further reduced to
cos   sin(   ) sin   cos(   ) cos  15

cos 
 For a north-facing, tilted surface in the Southern Hemisphere
γ = 180o => From Eq. (A):
cos   sin(   ) sin   cos(   ) cos  16

cos 
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 78
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
Example

Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface located at Madison, Wisconsin, at 10:30
(solar time) on February 13 if the surface is tilted 45o from the horizontal and pointed 15o west of south.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 79

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
 Useful relationships for angle of incidence of surfaces sloped due north or due south can be derived from
the fact that surfaces with slope β to the north or south have the same angular relationship to beam
radiation as a horizontal surface at an artificial latitude of (ϕ – β).
 Modifying Eq. (12): replacing Φ with (Ф – β)

For the southern hemisphere using (ϕ + β)

 For the Special Case of Solar Noon, for the

south-facing
sloped surface in the Northern Hemisphere

and in Southern Hemisphere

Where β = 0, angle of incidence is the

zenith angle,
which for the northern hemisphere is:Mechanical Engineering Dept.
and for the southern hemisphere C
EME 80
 Solar
Radiation
Assignment - 1

Q.1: Using the geometric correlations presented relations presented in this chapter, develop a computer
program (Matlab, C++ etc.) that estimates all solar angles according to the latitude, day of year, time
of the day, and slope of surface.

Q.2: Calculate the sunrise and sunset times and altitude and azimuth angles for London, England, on
March 15 and September 15 at 10:00 am and 3:30 pm solar times.

Q.3: A flat-plate collector in Nicosia, Cyprus, is tilted at 40° from horizontal and pointed 10° east of south.
Calculate the solar incidence angle on the collector at 10:30 am and 2:30 pm solar times on March 10
and September 10.

Q.4: What are the maximum and minimum noon altitude angles for a location at 40° latitude?

Q.5: Find the solar altitude and azimuth angles at 2 h after local noon on June 15 for a city located at 40°N
latitude. Also find the sunrise and sunset hours and the day length.

Last Date of Submission: 28 Nov 2018

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 81
 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
 If surface area is not perpendicular to the sun beam (i.e. zenith angle is not zero), a larger area is
required to catch the same flow as the cross section of the sunbeam

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 82

 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
Amount of solar energy incoming in collectors depends strongly on the β values
o Different declinations, experienced during the year, affect the Optimum Slope for surfaces
o Best slopes are when solar incidence angle θ is zero at solar noon because the Sun’s rays are normal
to the surface
 Requirement is to receive the maximum amount of
sunlight each day and throughout the year

 Angle and Direction of Installation is of great

importance

→ it will affect the efficiency of the solar energy

collection
 For Fixed Surface Tilt, if the location is in the Northern
Hemisphere then the surface should face South

 and if the location is in the Southern Hemisphere

then the surface should face north
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME
83
 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
 If the surface does not face due South, greatest amount of collection will occur in either the morning or
afternoon instead of at solar noon
→ This will decrease the daily total of collected energy

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 84

 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
Summer Tilt Angle is smaller than Winter Tilt Angle i.e. βwinter > βsummer

βwinter
βsummer

Summer Tilt Angle Winter Tilt Angle

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 85

 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
Positive Declination
Slopes for maximizing energy capture for Northern Hemisphere
latitudes when (φ – δ) > 0 are:

For the Southern Hemisphere latitudes, when (φ – δ) < 0

Mechanical eering Dept. HITE 86

Engin CEME/ C
 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
Zero Declination Slopes for maximizing energy capture for Northern Hemisphere
latitudes when (φ – δ) > 0 are:

For the Southern Hemisphere latitudes, when (φ – δ) < 0

Mec anical Engineering Dept. CEME 87

h
 Solar
Radiation
Surface Tilt
Negative Declination Slopes for maximizing energy capture for Northern Hemisphere latitudes
when (φ – δ) > 0 are:

For the Southern Hemisphere latitudes, when (φ – δ) < 0

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 88

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
 most commonly available data are total radiation for hours or days on the horizontal surface, whereas the
need is for Beam and Diffuse Radiation on the plane of a collector
 A flat surface absorbs beam (GBt), diffuse (GDt), and ground-reflected (GGt) solar radiation
18

 It is often necessary to calculate the Hourly Radiation on a Tilted Surface of a collector from measurements
or estimates of solar radiation on a horizontal surface

19

θz
Rb = ratio of beam radiation on the tilted
surface to that on a horizontal surface

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME

89
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

19

Gb,n = Beam radiation component reaching the earth’s surface

Gb,T, Gb = Beam component striking the tilted surface and horizontal surface, resp.
 Beam radiation component for any surface is 20

Rb is called Beam Radiation Tilt Factor  Term cosθ and cosθz can be estimated from Eqs. (11) and (12)
 Optimum Azimuth Angle for Flat-plate Collectors is usually 0 o in the northern hemisphere (or 180o in the
southern hemisphere)

⇒ it is a common situation that γ = 0o (or 180o)

For the specific case of a south-facing fixed surface cosθ is estimated from Eq. (15)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 90

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

21

 In the southern hemisphere, γ = 180o and the equation is

22

 There are also Graphical Method for solving these equations

 Plots of both cosθ as a function of Φ and cosθ as a function of (Φ – β) for various dates (i.e., declinations)
z

 Solar process performance calculations are very often done on an hourly basis
 cosθ plots are shown for the midpoints of hours before and after solar noon, and the values of R found
z b
from them are applied to those hours.

Figs. 1.8.2 (a-e): Chap-1, Book: Solar Engg.

Mechanical of Thermal
Engineering Processes by Duffie and Beckmann
Dept. CEME
91
 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 92

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles
RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
 Figures are also available for the values of Rfor collector slopes equal to latitude and latitude +10°, which is
B
the usual collector inclination for Solar Water-heating Collectors in Wnter

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 93

 Solar
Radiation
Earth – Sun Angles

Example

Estimate the beam radiation tilt factor for a surface located at 35 oN latitude and tilted 45o at 2:00 pm solar
time on March 10. If the beam radiation at normal incidence is 900 W/m2, estimate the beam radiation on the
tilted surface .

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 94

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces

 Some form of Tracking Mechanism is usually employed to enable the collector to follow the sun, . E.g. for
the case of solar-concentrating collectors

o To minimize the angle of incidence of Beam Radiation on their surfaces and thus maximize the
incident beam radiation

 Tracking systems are classified by their motions  Rotation can be about:

oSingle Axis (which could have any orientation but which in practice is usually horizontal east-west,
horizontal north-south, vertical, or parallel to the earth’s axis)
oTwo Axes
 Here in the following slides, the amount of energy falling on a surface per unit area for the summer and
winter solstices and the Equinoxes for latitude of 35° N is described for each mode

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 95

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
1- Full Tracking

 For a two-axis tracking mechanism, keeping the surface in

question
continuously oriented to face the sun at all times has an angle of incidence
θ, equal to:

=> θ = 0o

 Full tracking configuration collects the maximum possible sunshine

 Slope of this surface (β) is equal to the solar zenith angle (θ ), and the surface
z
azimuth angle (γs) is equal to the solar azimuth angle (γ)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 96

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
1- Full Tracking---contd----
Daily variation of solar flux, Full tracking

for latitude of 35° N

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 97

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
2- Tilted N-S axis with Tilt Adjusted Daily
 For a plane moved about a north-south axis with a single daily adjustment so that its surface normal
coincides with the solar beam at noon each day, θ is:

cos  sin2 ( )  cos2 ( ) 23

cos
 Problem with all Tilted Collectors → when more than one collector is used, front
collectors cast shadows on adjacent ones
 In terms of land utilization these collectors lose some of their benefits

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 98

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
2- Tilted N-S axis with tilt adjusted daily…contd…
Daily variation of solar flux: tilted N-S axis with tilt adjusted daily

for latitude of 35° N

peaked curves typical for this assembly

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 99

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
3- Polar N-S Axis with E-W Tracking
 For a plane rotated about a north-south axis parallel to the
earth’s axis, with continuous adjustment, θ is equal to

 Collector Axis tilted at the Polar Axis, which is equal

is to
the Local
 sun is normal to the collector at equinoxes
Latitude (δ = 0°)
and the cosine effect is maximum

 same comments about the tilting of the collector and shadowing

effects apply here as in the previous configuration

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 100

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
3 Polar N-S Axis with E-W Tracking – contd --
 Equinox and Summer Solstice Performance, in terms of solar radiation collected, are essentially equal;
 i.e., the smaller air mass for summer solstice offsets the small cosine projection effect

for latitude of 35° N

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 101

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
4- Horizontal E-W Axis with N-S Tracking

 For a plane rotated about a horizontal east-west axis with continuous adjustment to minimize the angle of
incidence, θ is:

cos   1  cos 2 () sin 2 () 24

OR

cos  sin2 ( )  cos2 ( ) cos2 25

()
 Shadowing effects of this arrangement are minimal
 Principal shadowing is caused when the collector is tipped
to a maximum degree south (δ= 23.5°) at winter solstice
 Slope of this surface is given by:

tan   tan z 26
cos
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 102
 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
4- Horizontal E-W Axis with N-S Tracking….contd--

 This assembly approximates the full tracking collector in summer, but the cosine effect in winter greatly
reduces its effectiveness

for latitude of 35° N

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 103

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
5- Horizontal N-S axis with E-W tracking
 For a plane rotated about a horizontal north-south axis with continuous adjustment to minimize the angle
of incidence, θ is:

cos   sin 2 (  )  cos 2 (  ) sin 2 27

()
28
cos   c o s  z c o s   c o s  sin (  )
2

 Greatest advantage of this arrangement is that very small shadowing

effects are encountered when more than one collector is used
 The slope of this surface is given by:

tan   tan  z cos(  s  29



Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 104

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces
5- Horizontal N-S axis with E-W tracking…contd---

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 105

 Solar
Radiation
The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 106

 Solar
Radiation
Sun path diagrams
 Instead of using the preceding equations, it is convenient to have the sun’s path plotted on a horizontal
plane → Sun Path Diagram → use to find the position of the sun in the sky at any time of the year
 solar altitude angle, αs, and the solar azimuth angle, γ, are functions of latitude, Φ, hour angle, ω, and
declination, δ (Eqs. (4) and (9))
Sun Path Diagram For 35°N Latitude

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 107

 Solar
Radiation
Shadow Determination
 In the design of many solar energy systems, it is often required to estimate the possibility of the shading of
solar collectors or the windows of a building by surrounding structures
 it is necessary to know the shadow cast as a function of time during every day of the year
Shadow determination is facilitated by the determination of a
surface oriented solar angle, called the solar profile angle

 SolarProfile Angle, p, is the angle between the normal to a

surface and the sun’s rays on a plane normal to the surface
OR
Angle through which a plane that is initially horizontal
must be rotated about an axis in the plane of the γs
surface in question in order to include the sun
γ

10
8
 Solar
Radiation
Shadow Determination
tan 
tan p 30
 cos(  s  
)
when the surface faces due south, i.e. γ = 0

tan  31
tan p 
cos( 
s )

 Sun Path Diagram is often very useful in determining the period of the year and hours of day when
shading will take place at a particular location

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 109

 Solar
Radiation
Shadow Determination
Example

It is proposed to install a solar collector at a level 4.0 m above the ground. A rectangular building 30 m high
is located 45 m to the south, has its long dimension on an east-west axis, and has dimensions shown in the
diagram. The latitude is 45o. Diagram this building on the solar position plot to show the times of day and
year when it would shade the proposed collector.

Mechanical eering Dept. CEME 110

Engin
 Solar
Radiation
Example---Contd---

Dates and times when Collector would be shaded from direct sun by the building are evident

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 111

 Solar
Radiation
Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface

 Several types of radiation calculations are most conveniently done using normalized radiation levels, i.e,
the ratio of radiation level to the theoretically possible radiation that would be available if there were no
atmosphere
 At any point in time, the solar radiation incident on a horizontal plane outside of the atmosphere is

30

Gsc is the solar constant and n is the day of the year, cosθz is from Eq. (17)

31

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 112

 Solar
Radiation
Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface

 Itis often necessary for calculation of daily solar radiation to have the integrated daily extraterrestrial
radiation on a horizontal surface, Ho

 It is obtained by integrating Eq. (31) over the period from sunrise to sunset. If G o is in watts per square
meter, Ho in joules per square meter is

32

ωs is the sunset hour angle, in degrees Eq. (6)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 113

 Solar
Radiation
Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface

 To calculate the extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface for an hour period. Integrating Eq. (31)
for a period between hour angles ω1 and ω2 which define an hour (where ω2 is the larger),

33

Limits ω1 and ω2 may define a time other than an hour

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 114

 Solar
Radiation
Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface

 Mean radiation Ho is plotted as a function of latitude for the northern and southern hemispheres

 Curves are for dates that give the mean

radiation for the month

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 115

 Solar
Radiation
Example

Determine the extraterrestrial normal radiation and the extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface on
March 10 at 2:00 pm solar time for 35°N latitude. Determine also the total solar radiation on the extraterrestrial
horizontal surface for the day.

Example

What is the solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the atmosphere at latitude 43 N on April
15 between the hours of 10 and 11?

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME 116