• 1.
Introduction
• The rapid industrialization and urbanization of modern
societies have led to the widespread release of organic and
inorganic pollutants into the environment. Traditional
remediation methods often fall short due to inefficiency, high
cost, or the generation of secondary waste. Photocatalysis has
emerged as a promising, green, and sustainable solution for
environmental cleanup, especially for degrading persistent
pollutants in air and water. This process utilizes semiconductor
materials activated by light to catalyze redox reactions,
breaking down contaminants into non-toxic byproducts such
as carbon dioxide, water, and mineral acids.
Photocatalytic Degradation of Pollutants:
• 2. Mechanisms of Photocatalytic Degradation
• 2.1. Basic Principle
• Photocatalysis relies on the absorption of light by a semiconductor photocatalyst, which leads to the
excitation of electrons and the creation of electron-hole pairs (e⁻/h⁺). These charge carriers can initiate
redox reactions:
• Excitation:
• \text{Semiconductor} + h\nu \rightarrow e^- + h^+
• Redox Reactions:
• Oxidation (by h⁺):
• h^+ + H_2O \rightarrow \cdot OH + H^+
• e^- + O_2 \rightarrow \cdot O_2^-
• 2.2. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
• These include:
• Hydroxyl radicals (•OH)
• Superoxide anions (•O₂⁻)
• Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)
• Singlet oxygen (¹O₂)
• ROS are highly reactive and can non-selectively oxidize a broad spectrum of pollutants, including dyes,
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and volatile organic
• 2.3. Pollutant Degradation
• Pollutants undergo stepwise oxidation:
• Organic pollutants → intermediates → CO₂ + H₂O
• Inorganic pollutants (e.g., NOₓ, NH₃, heavy metals) are converted to less harmful species.
• 3. Photocatalytic Materials
• 3.1. Traditional Semiconductors
• Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂): Most widely studied; chemically stable, inexpensive, non-toxic. Active under UV
light.
• Zinc Oxide (ZnO): Similar to TiO₂, but prone to photocorrosion.
• Cadmium Sulfide (CdS): Visible-light-active, but toxic and unstable in aqueous media.
• 3.2. Modified and Advanced Photocatalysts
• Doped Semiconductors: Incorporating metal (Fe, Cu, Ag) or non-metal (N, C, S) dopants improves visible
light response.
• Heterojunctions: Combination of two semiconductors to enhance charge separation (e.g., TiO₂/CdS, g-
C₃N₄/ZnO).
• Plasmonic Nanoparticles: Metal nanoparticles (Au, Ag) enhance visible light absorption via localized surface
plasmon resonance (LSPR).
• Carbon-based Materials: Graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) improve electron transport and
surface area.
• 4. Applications
• 4.1. Water Treatment
• Dye degradation: Removal of textile dyes like methylene blue, rhodamine B.
• Pharmaceutical pollutants: Ibuprofen, diclofenac, antibiotics.
• Pesticides and herbicides: Atrazine, glyphosate.
• Heavy metal detoxification: Photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III).
•
•
• 4.2. Air Purification
• VOC removal: Formaldehyde, benzene, toluene, xylene.
• NOₓ and SOₓ degradation: Converts toxic gases into harmless nitrates and
sulfates.
• Antimicrobial surfaces: TiO₂ coatings for bacteria and virus inactivation.
• 4.3. Self-Cleaning Surfaces
• Widely used in building materials (e.g., self-cleaning windows and tiles) using
TiO₂ coatings.
• 4.4. Hydrogen Production (Photocatalytic Water Splitting)
• Advanced photocatalysts are being explored for simultaneous pollutant
degradation and hydrogen generation.
• 5. Challenges and Future Perspectives
• 5.1. Challenges
• Limited light absorption: Most photocatalysts are UV-active; sunlight contains
only ~5% UV.
• Charge recombination: Rapid electron-hole recombination reduces efficiency.
• Catalyst stability: Some materials degrade or leach into the environment.
• Scalability: Transition from lab to real-world applications requires robust
systems.
• 5.2. Future Directions
• Development of visible-light-active photocatalysts.
• Hybrid materials combining photocatalysis with adsorption or biological treatment.
• Reactor engineering: Advanced photoreactor designs to optimize light utilization.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for catalyst discovery and process optimization.
• 6. Conclusion
• Photocatalytic degradation is a powerful and sustainable approach for addressing environmental
pollution. With ongoing advancements in material science and photoreactor technology,
photocatalysis holds significant potential for real-world applications in water and air purification,
energy production, and environmental protection. Future research should focus on improving light
utilization, enhancing catalyst durability, and scaling up for iProblem Solving in Photocatalytic
Degradation of Pollutants
• Photocatalysis offers a promising solution to environmental pollution, but several practical
challenges must be addressed to make the technology viable for large-scale applications. Below are
key problems and the strategies to solve them:
•
1. Limited Light Utilization
• Problem:
• Many photocatalysts (like TiO₂) are only active under UV light,
which constitutes just ~5% of solar radiation.
• Solutions:
• Doping with metals (Fe, Cu) or non-metals (N, C, S) to reduce
the bandgap and activate the photocatalyst under visible light.
• Sensitization with dyes or quantum dots that absorb visible
light and transfer electrons to the photocatalyst.
• Using plasmonic nanoparticles (e.g., Ag, Au) to enhance
visible light absorption through surface plasmon resonance.
• 2. Fast Electron-Hole Recombinatin
• problem
• Photo-generated electron-hole pairs tend to recombine quickly, reducing photocatalytic
efficiency.
• Solutions:
• Heterojunction formation: Combine two semiconductors (e.g., TiO₂/g-C₃N₄) to enhance charge
separation.
• Core-shell structures and Z-scheme photocatalysts to promote directional charge flow.
• Loading with co-catalysts (e.g., Pt, RuO₂) that act as electron sinks.
• 3. Low Catalyst Stability and Reusability
• Problem:
• Some photocatalysts degrade over time or leach harmful components (like Cd²⁺ in CdS).
• Solutions:
• Use stable materials like TiO₂ and ZnO.
• Surface modification with protective coatings (e.g., silica or carbon) to prevent photocorrosion.
• Immobilization techniques: Fixing the catalyst onto supports (glass, ceramic, membranes) for
easy recovery and reuse.
• 4. Low Efficiency in Complex Real Wastewater
• Problem:
• Lab tests often use pure pollutant solutions, while real wastewater contains multiple
contaminants, turbidity, and competing ions.
• Solutions:
• Composite systems: Combine photocatalysis with other treatments (adsorption, biological
treatment, ozonation).
• Design multifunctional photocatalysts capable of degrading diverse pollutants.
• Pilot-scale testing under real conditions to refine operating parameters.
• 5. Difficulty in Catalyst Recovery
• Problem:
• Powdered photocatalysts are difficult to separate from treated water.
• Solutions:
• Magnetic photocatalysts (e.g., Fe₃O₄/TiO₂) for easy magnetic separation.
• Immobilized systems: Embed photocatalysts on supports (films, membranes).
• Membrane-photocatalytic reactors: Combine filtration and degradation
• 6. Low Quantum Yield and Conversion Efficiency
• Problem:
• Despite promising lab results, the overall photon-to-product efficiency remains low.
• Solutions:
• Optimized reactor design: Increase light penetration and contact area.
• Use of solar concentrators to enhance photon input.
• Adjust operational parameters: pH, pollutant concentration, flow rate, and catalyst
dosage.
• 7. Environmental and Economic Concerns
• Problem:
• High costs and potential toxicity of some advanced materials (e.g., noble metals,
quantum dots).
• Solutions:
• Develop low-cost, earth-abundant catalysts like g-C₃N₄, BiVO₄.
• Recycle and reuse strategies to minimize material consumption.
• Techno-economic assessments to evaluate cost-benefit before scaling upndustrial use
Thank you.
• By -
• Harsh ,Ansh and team.
