CHAPTER 2

Discrete-Time Signals and

Systems
 Engr. Zeeshan Habib
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering

HITEC University Taxila Cantt

Contents

1. Classification of Signals
2. Block Diagram Representation of DT
Systems
3. Classification of DT Systems
4. DT Convolution and Properties
5. DT Correlation Functions
Classification of Discrete-Time
Signals

 Even & Odd Signals

 Energy &Power Signals
 Periodic & Non-Periodic Signals
 Deterministic vs Random signals
Even or Symmetric Signal

x ( n)  x (  n)

x(n)

n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Odd or Asymmetric Signal

x (  n)  x ( n)
x(n)
4
3
2
1
0
n
-1
-2
-3
-4
Energy Signal

 2
E  x(n)
n
The energy of a signal can be finite or infinite. If ‘E’
is finite (i.e. 0<E<), then x(n) is called an Energy
Signal.
Power Signal

Clearly, if E is finite, P = O. On the other hand, if E is infinite, the average

power P may be either finite or infinite.
If P is finite (and nonzero), the signal is called a power signal.
1 N 2
P  Lim  x ( n)
N   2 N  1 n N
Example:
Determine the power and energy of the unit step sequence.
Solution:

1 N 2
P  Lim  U (n)
N   2N 1 n N
P  Lim N 1
N   2N 1
1 1
P  Lim N 1/ 2
1
N   2 N
Consequently, the unit step sequence is a power
signal. Its energy is infinite
 Periodic & Aperiodic Signals:

If x(n  N ) x(n) for all values of n

 a signal x(n) is periodic with period N(N > 0) if and only if x(n + N) =
x(n) for all n. Eq (2.1.20)

 The smallest value of N for which (2.1.20) holds is called the

(fundamental) period.

 If there is no value of N that satisfies (2.1.20), the signal is called

nonperiodic or aperiodic.
Periodicity:

 N 2k
0
f k
0 N

where k & N are integers

 Example:

x(n) sin(n / 9)
f k / N  / 2  / 9 / 2 1/18
0 0  

N 18
After 18 samples the signal will repeat itself. Hence the signal is a Periodic
Signal.
Example:
x(n) sin N sin( 2n)
0
f k / N  / 2  2 / 2
0 0
 / 2 || Irrational
Therefore Aperiodic Signal
 Energy of a Periodic signal

The energy of a periodic signal x(n) over a single period, say, over the interval
0< n < N - 1, is finite if x(n) takes on finite values over the period. However,
the energy of the periodic signal for  < n <  is infinite.
On the other hand, the average power of the periodic signal is finite and it is
equal to the average power over a single period. Thus if x(n) is a periodic signal
with fundamental period N and takes on finite values, its power is given by

Consequently, periodic signals are power signals.

 Deterministic vs Random signals
Deterministic signals:
Any signal that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical
expression, a table of data, or a well-defined rule is called
deterministic. This term is used to emphasize the fact that all past,
present, and future values of the signal are known precisely, without any
uncertainty.

Random signals:
In many practical applications, however, there are signals that either
cannot be described to any reasonable degree of accuracy by explicit
mathematical formulas. or such a description is too complicated to be of
any practical use. The lack of such a relationship implies that such
signals evolve in time in an unpredictable manner. We refer to these
signals as random signal. The output of a noise generator. the seismic
signal, and the speech signal are examples of random signals .
 Simple Manipulations of Discrete-
Time Signals

Transformation of the independent variable (time).

A signal x(n) may be shifted in time by replacing the independent variable
n by (n – k), where k is an integer.
If k is a positive integer, the time shift results in a delay of the signal by k
units of time.
If k is a negative integer, the time shift results in an advance of the signal
by |k| units in time.
 EXAMPLE

A signal x(n) is graphically illustrated in Fig. 2.1.9(a). Show a graphical representation of the
signals x(n - 3) and x(n+2).
 Folding and Shifting:

Another useful modification of the time base is to replace the independent variable ‘n’ by
‘–n’. The result of this operation is a folding or a reflection of the signal about the time origin
n=0
Folding and Shifting:
 Down-sampling:
A third modification of the independent variable involves replacing n by (µn),
where µ is an integer. We refer to this time-base modification as time scaling or down-
sampling.
 Amplitude Modification: (Addition,
multiplication, and scaling of sequences)

 Amplitude scaling of a signal by a constant A is accomplished by multiplying the value of

every signal sample by A. Consequently, we obtain
y(n) = Ax(n), - < n < 

 The sum of two signals Xl (n) and X2 (n) is a signal y(n), whose value at any instant is
equal to the sum of the values of these two signals at that instant, that is,
y(n) = Xl (n) + X2(n), -  < n < 

 The product of two signals is similarly defined on a sample-to-sample basis as

y(n) = Xl (n) X2(n), -  < n < 
Transformation of the independent variable
(n)

Delay x(n-2)
Advance x(n+1)
Compressed Signal x(2n)
Expanded Signal x(n/2)
Reverse-Time x(-n)
x(n)

-n n

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
 Discrete-time (DT) System:

A Discrete-time (DT) system is a device or algorithm that operates on a discrete-time

signal, called the input or excitation, according to some well-defined rule, to produce
another discrete-time signal called the output or response of the system.
 EXAMPLE:

Determine the response of the following systems to the input signal

The output of this system at any time is the mean value of the present, the immediate past, and the
immediate future samples. For example, the output at time n = 0 is
Y(0) = 1/3[x(-1) +x(0) +x(1)] = 1/3[1 + 0 + 1] = 2/3
Repeating this computation for every value of n, we obtain the output signal

y(n) = {... , 0,1, 5/3, 2, I, 2/3, 1, 2, 5/3,1,0, ...}

Discrete-Time Systems
Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time
Signals

Unit Delay:

Unit Advance:
Adder:

A constant Multiplier:
A Signal Multiplier:
Example:

y ( n) 2 x ( n  1)  x ( n)
Example:

y (n) 2 x(n)  3 y (n  1)  5 x(n  1)

 Example:

sketch the block diagram representation of the discrete-time system

described by the input-output relation where x(n) is the input and y(n) is the
output of the system.
Classification of Discrete-Time Systems
 Causal versus noncausal systems.
 Static versus dynamic systems.
 Time-invariant versus time-variant systems.
 Linear versus nonlinear systems.
 Stable versus unstable systems.
 Classificatio of Systems

Causal & Non-Causal:

A system is said to be Causal if the output of the system at any time n [i.e.
y(n)] depends only on present and/or past inputs i.e. [x(n), x(n-1), x(n-2)]
Examples:

(i ) y ( n )  x ( n )  x ( n  1)
n
(ii ) y ( n )   x(k )
k 
(iii ) y ( n ) ax ( n )
(iv ) y ( n )  x ( n )  3 x ( n  4)
(v ) y ( n)  x ( n 2 )
(vi ) y ( n)  x ( 2n)
(vii ) y ( n)  x (  n)
 Linear & Non-linear:

A system which follows the principle of Superposition is said to be Linear.

[a x (n)  a x (n)] a x (n)  a x (n)
11 2 2 11 2 2
Where x1(n), x2(n) and a1, a2 are arbitrary inputs and constants respectively.
Example:
Determine whether the system is Linear or Non-Linear:
y (n) nx(n)
Solution:
For two inputs sequences x1(n) & x2(n), the
corresponding outputs are y1 (n) nx1 (n)
y (n) nx (n)
2 2
A linear combination of two inputs sequences result in
the output
y (n) a x (n) a x (n) n[a x (n) a x (n)]
3 11 22 11 22
y (n) na x (n) na x (n)  (1)
3 11 22
Similarly, a linear combination of the outputs yields

a y (n)  a y (n) na x (n)  na x (n)

11 2 2 11 2 2
a y (n)  a y (n) na x (n)  na x (n)  (2)
11 2 2 11 11

Comparing Eqn. (1) & (2), both are same

The system is a linear system.

Example:
y(n) x2(n )
Solution:
2 2
y ( n)  x ( n) , y ( n)  x ( n)
1 1 2 2
A linear combination of two inputs

y (n) [a x (n)  a x (n)] 2

3 11 2 2
2 2 2 2
y (n) a x (n)  2a a x (n) x (n)  a x (n)  (1)
3 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2
Similarly, a linear combination of the outputs

2 2
a y (n)  a y (n) na x (n)  na x (n)  (2)
1 1 2 2 11 2 2

Comparing Eqn. (1) & (2), both are not equal.

System is a non-linear.
Example:
x( n)
y ( n)  e
a x ( n) a x ( n)
y ( n) e 1 , y ( n) e 2
1 2

 
a x ( n)a x ( n) 


y ( n) e 1  2 

3
a x ( n) a x ( n)
y ( n) a y ( n)  a y ( n) a e 1 a e 2
4 1 1 2 2 1 2
Since, y ( n)  y ( n)
3 4
 Non  Linear
 Static & Dynamic System (Memoryless or
System with memory)
A discrete-time system is called static or memoryless if its output at any instant n depends at
most on the input sample at the same time, but not on past or future samples of the input. In any
other case, the system is said to be dynamic or to have memory.
The systems described by the following input-output equations are both static or memoryless.

On the other hand, the systems described by the following input-output relations are dynamic
systems or systems with memory.
Time-invariant & Time-variant:
EXAMPLE

Determine if the systems shown by equation is time invariant or time variant.

Examples:-
Time-Domain Analysis
 Discrete-time Convolution
d (n+1) d (n)
3

d (n-1)
1

0 n
-1 0 1


x(n)   x(k ) (n  k )

x( 1) (n 1)  x(0) (n)  x(1) (n  1)
3 (n 1) 2 (n)  (n  1)
 4

-1

-2 n


x(n)   x(k ) (n  k )

x( 2) (n 2)  x( 1) (n 1)  x(0) (n)  x(1) (n  1)
x(2) (n  2)
  (n 2)  (n 1) 3 (n)  (n  1)   (n  2)
When the input of a system is a Unit Impulse then the
output of the system is called Impulse Response.

No. of o/p samples =No. of impulse response samples

+
No. of i/p samples
Discrete-time Convolution


y(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 
Discrete-time Convolution
1. Folding
2. Shifting
3. Multiplication
4. Summation
Discrete-time Convolution

Example:
Compute and verify convolution result given in equation y(n)

x(n) 1,2,2

h(n) 2,1
y ( n)  x ( n) * h( n) h( n) * x ( n)
Properties of Convolution and the Interconnection of LTI
Systems

1. Commutative Property of Convolution

 
y(n)   x(k )h(n  k )   h(k )x(n  k )
k  k 

2. Associative Property of Convolution

3. Distributive Property of Convolution
 Finite Impulse Response(FIR) and Infinite Impulse
Response(IIR).

y ( n)   x ( k ) h( n  k )
k 

y ( n)   h( k ) x ( n  k ) || IIR
k 
M 1
y ( n)   h( k ) x ( n  k ) || FIR
k 
When there are finite no. of samples, the system o/p is
said to be Finite Impulse Response(FIR).
When there are infinite no. of samples, the system
o/p is said to be Infinite Impulse Response(IIR).
Recursive & Non-recursive DTS

N M
 a k y ( n  k )   bk x ( n  k )
k  k 
(1) y (n)  x(n)  x(n  1)
(2) y (n)  x(n)  y (n  1)
Those system which depend on i/p as well as on o/p,
in other words there is some feedback, that system is
Recursive.
N M
y (n)   a y (n  k )   b x(n  k )
k  k k  k
 Those system which depend only on i/p in other
words there is no feedback, that system is Non-recursive.
M
y ( n)   b x ( n  k )
k  k
LTI System characterized by constant- coefficient
Difference Equations

y (n) ay (n  1)  x(n)

y (0) ay (  1)  x (0)
y (0) ay (0)  x (1) a 2 y (  1)  ax (0)  x (1)
y (0) ay (1)  x ( 2) a 3 y (  1)  a 2 (0)  ax (1)  x ( 2)

y ( n) a n 1 y (  1)  a n x (0)  a n  1 x (1)   ax ( n  1)  x ( n)
n  1 n k
 y ( n) a y (  1)   a x ( n  k ) , n 0
k 0

i. If the System is initially relaxed at time n=0 then

its memory should be zero. Hence y(-1)=0. Thus
a recursive system is relaxed if it starts with zero
initial conditions.
 n k
yzs (n)   a x(n  k )
k 0
It is called Zero-State or forced response.

ii. y(-1)0 and x(n)=0 for all n.

It is called Zero-input response or natural response.

y (n) a n1 y ( 1) , n 0
zi
The general class of recursive systems described by
linear constant-coefficient difference equations:

The integer N is called the order of the difference

equation or the order of the system.
 Correlation Functions

y (n) x(n  D)   (n)

=attenuation factor
(n)=unwanted signal or additive noise
D = delay
x(n-D)=The delayed version

 If there is no target then

y(n)=(n)
1)Cross Correlation

The crosscorelation of x(n) and y(n) is a

sequence xy(l)

 xy (l )   x ( n) y ( n  l ) , l 0,1,2 
n 
or

 xy (l )   x ( n  l ) y ( n) , l 0,1,2 
n 

If we reverse the role of x(n) & y(n)


 yx (l )   y ( n) x ( n  l )
n 
or

 yx (l )   y ( n  l ) x ( n)
n 
  xy (l )  yx (  l )
2) Auto Correlation

y ( n)  x ( n)

y ( n)   x ( n) x ( n  l )
n
Example: