PHYSICS-1

Class : 1st Year B.Tech.- ICE - B section

Course Type : General Institute Requirement (GIR)

Course Code : PHIR11

No. of Credits: 03

Assessment : Cycle Test 1&2 , Assignment 1&2, and Final Exam

Marks : 20+20+10+10+40=100

Attendance : Minimum 75%

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Course Plan:
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PHYSICS-1
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Cont.,
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Cont.,
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Syllabus
Lasers: Introduction to Laser-characteristics of Lasers-spontaneous and
stimulated emissions – Einstein’s coefficients – population inversion and lasing
action – laser systems: He-Ne Laser, semiconductor laser-applications.

Fiber Optics: Snell’s law-optical fiber – principle and construction – acceptance

cone -numerical aperture –types of fibers - fiber optic communication principle –
fiber optic sensors.

Quantum Mechanics: Inadequacy of classical mechanics-black body radiation,

photoelectric effect- wave and particle duality of radiation – de Broglie concept of
matter waves – electron diffraction – Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle –
Schrodinger’s wave equation – eigen values and eigen functions – superposition
principle – interpretation of wave function – particle confined in one dimensional
infinite square well potential.
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Cont.,
Nuclear and Particle Physics:
Nuclear properties and forces - Nuclear models - Shell model - Nuclear reaction-
Radioactivity - types and half-life. Fundamental forces - Particle physics -
classification of matter - quark model.

Physics of Advanced Materials:

Conductors: classical free electron theory (Lorentz –Drude theory) – electrical
conductivity. Superconductors: definition – Meissner effect – type I & II
superconductors – BCS theory (qualitative). Nanomaterials: introduction and
properties – synthesis – top-down and bottom-up approach – applications.

References
1. Laser Fundamentals, William T. Silfvast, 2nd edn, Cambridge University press, New York (2004).
2. Fundamentals of Physics, 6th Edition, D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, John Wiley and Sons, New York
(2001).
3. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (2010).
4. Fundamentals of Physics II, R. Shankar, Yale University Press, New Haven and London (2016).
5. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th Edition, Charles Kittel, John Wiley & Sons, NJ, USA (2005).
 PHYSICS-1
Lasers: Introduction to Laser-characteristics of Lasers-spontaneous and
stimulated emissions – Einstein’s coefficients – population inversion and lasing
action – laser systems: He-Ne Laser, semiconductor laser-applications.
What is Atom? What is a photon?

A photon is a tiny particle that comprises waves of electromagnetic radiation. Photons are just electric fields
travelling through space. Photons have no charge, no resting mass, and travel at the speed of light.

The energy of a Photon

E-Energy of photon
- Planks Constant (6.63x10-34 J.s)
- Frequency (Hz)
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Introduction to LASER

Absorption Photon
Photon

Spontaneous Emission

Characteristics of Ordinary Light

1. Spontaneous emission
2. Polychromatic
3. Incoherent
4. Divergent
5. Less intense
Stimulated Emission

6. Stimulated emission
7. Monochromatic
8. Coherent
9. Directionality
10. Intense beam
What is LASER?- Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
LASER is a device that generates light by a process called stimulated emission.
S.No. Spontaneous emission
PHYSICS-1 Stimulated emission
1 Spontaneous emission is a random and probabi- Not a random process
listic process.
2 Not amenable for control from outside. Amenable for control from outside
3 The photons are emitted haphazardly. The The photons emitted in the process travel in the
instant of emission, direction of emission, same direction as that of stimulating photon.
phase, polarization state of photon are all The light produced by the process is essentially
random quantities and cannot be controlled. directional
4 Photons are emitted uniformly in all directions The photons emitted in the process travel in the
from an assembly of atoms. As a result, the same direction as that of stimulating photon.
light is non-directional The light produced by the process is essentially
directional
5 Photons of slightly different frequencies The spread of photon frequencies is rela-
are generated. As a result, the light is not tively very narrow. As such the light is nearly
monochromatic. monochromatic.
6 Photons do not have any correlation in their The photons emitted by this process are all in
phases, which fluctuate randomly. Therefore, phase and therefore, the light is coherent.
the light produced by this process is incoherent.
7 In this process multiplication of photons does One stimulating photon causes emission of
not take place. Hence there is no amplification two more photons. These two produce four
of light due to the process. photons, which in turn generate eight photons
and so on. Thus, if there are N excited atoms,
2N photons will be produced. Light ampli-
fication occurs due to such multiplication of
photons.
8 The net intensity of the generated light is given As all the photons are in phase, they construc-
by tively interfere and produce an intensity
IT = N I IT = N2 I
where N is the number of atoms emitting
photons and I is the intensity of each photon
 PHYSICS-1
Einstein Coefficient
The Einstein coefficient was introduced to describe the probability per unit time of three fundamental
photo processes: Absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.

The rate of absorption (Rab) is proportional to the number of electrons present in the ground state, the
probability of absorption per unit of time and the energy density of the incoming photons.

𝑹 𝒂𝒃=𝑵 𝟏 . 𝑩𝟏𝟐 . 𝒖 ( 𝒗 ) … … … … … … … ..(1)

E2 N2
𝑁 1 - Number of electrons present in the ground state Ph
ot
on
𝐵 12 - Probability of absorption per unit time (transition from state s

1 to state 2)
𝑢 (𝑣 ) - Energy density of incoming photons
E1 N1
The rate of spontaneous emission (Rsp) is proportional to the
number of electrons present in the excited state and the
probability of emission per unit time. N2

𝑹𝒔𝒑=𝑵 𝟐 . 𝑨 𝟐𝟏… ……… … … ……… …(2)

- Number of electrons present in the ground state N1

2

𝐴 21 - Probability of spontaneous emission per unit time (transition from state

2 to state 1).
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The rate of Stimulated emission (Rst) is proportional to the number of electrons present in the excited
state, the probability of emission per unit time and the energy density of the incoming photons.

N2
𝑹 𝒔𝒕=𝑵 𝟐 . 𝑩𝟐𝟏 . 𝒖 ( 𝒗 ) … … … … … … … ..(3)
𝑁1 - Number of electrons present in the ground state
𝐵 21 - Probability of absorption per unit time (transition from state N1
2 to state 1)
𝑢 (𝑣 ) - Energy density of incoming photons

Under thermal equilibrium condition, the rate of Rab is equal to Rsp and Rst
𝑹 𝒂𝒃=𝑹𝒔𝒑+ 𝑹𝒔𝒕 … … … … … … … … ..(4)

+
Both sides are divided by N2. B21
+
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Boltzmann's Law tells us that
(in equilibrium)
( 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1)
𝑁1 𝑘𝑡
=𝑒
𝑁2

Recognizing that
h𝑣
𝑁1
=𝑒 𝑘𝑡 … … … … … … ..(6 )
𝑁2 Conclusions:
1. B12, A21, B21 are called Einstein
Substitute Eqn. (6) in (5)
coefficients.
2. Probability of upward transition equal to
downward transition.
3. Spontaneous emission dominates over the
According to Planks law of radiation
stimulated emission if the energy difference
(E2-E1) is high between energy levels.
4. So, it is difficult to achieve lasing action in
Compare Equ. (7) and (8) the higher frequency range and low
wavelengths.
𝐵 12=𝐵 21
3
𝐴 21 8 π h𝑣
= For Laser action, stimulated emission
𝐵 21 𝑐3 should be predominant over spontaneous
emission and absorption. To achieve this,
𝒄𝟑
𝑩 𝟏𝟐= 𝑨 𝟐𝟏 . = 𝑩𝟐𝟏 an artificial condition known as population
𝟖 𝝅 𝒉𝒗 𝟑
inversion is required.
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Population Inversion
Population Inversion creates a situation in which the number of atoms in higher energy state is more than that
in the lower energy state. Usually, at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N 2 i.e., the population of atoms at higher
energy state is much lesser than the population of the atoms at lower energy state N 1 that is N1>N2. The Phenomenon of
making N2 > N1 is known as Population Inversion.

N2 E2 N2 E2

N1 E1 N1 E1
N1>N2 N2>N1
Condition for Population Inversion:
1. There must be at least two energy levels E 2> E1 (N2 > N1).
2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
3. The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.
When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio is governed by the Boltzmann factor according to
the following equation: ( 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1)
𝑁1 𝑘𝑡
=𝑒
𝑁2

Meta stable states

An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally, excited atoms have short lifetimes and release
their energy in a matter of nanoseconds (10 -9) through spontaneous emission. This means that atoms do not stay stimulated
for long to be stimulated.
It is necessary that excited states have a longer lifetime. A meta-stable state is such a state. Metastable can be readily
obtained in a crystal system containing impurity atoms. These levels lie in the forbidden gap of the host crystal. There could
be no population inversion and hence no laser action, if metastable states don’t exist.
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Methods of achieving population inversion

1. Optical pumping

2. Direct electron excitation

3. Inelastic atom-atom collision

4. Chemical reaction

Components of laser Ruby lasers

5. Active Medium
6. The Pump
7. Optical Resonator
Types of Lasers
8. Solid state lasers
9. Gas lasers
10. Liquid laser
11. Dye laser He-Ne lasers
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Three level laser
• Atoms in general are characterized by a large number of energy levels. Among them only three or four levels will be
pertinent to the pumping process.
• The state E1 is the ground state; E3 is the pump state

and E2 is upper lasing level, which is a metastable

state. When the medium is exposed to pump
frequency radiation, a large number of atoms will be
excited to E3 level. However, they do not stay at that
level but rapidly undergo downward transitions to the
metastable state E2 through non-radiative transitions.
The atoms are trapped at this state as spontaneous
transition from the level E2 to the level E1 is

• forbidden.
When more than half of the ground state atoms accumulate at E 2, the population inversion condition is achieved

between the two states E1 and E2. Now a chance photon can trigger stimulated emission.

• In this scheme, the terminal state of the laser transition is simultaneously the ground state. Therefore, population
inversion is achieved only when more than half of the ground state atoms are pumped to the upper state. Thus, the
schemee requires very high pump power.
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Four level laser

• The state E1 is the ground state, E4 the pumping

level, E3 the metastable upper lasing level and E 2

the lower lasing level. E2, E3 and E4 are the

excited states. When light of pump frequency np
is incident on the lasing medium, the active
centers are readily excited from the ground state
to the pumping level E4.
• The atoms stay at the E4 level for only about 10 –8s, and quickly drop down to the metastable state E 3. As spontaneous

transitions from the level E3 to level E2 cannot take place, the atoms get trapped in the state E 3.
• The population at the state E 3 grows rapidly. The level E2 is well above the ground state such that (E 2 – E1) > kT.

Therefore, at normal temperature atoms cannot jump to level E 2 on the strength of thermal energy. As a result, the level

E2 is virtually empty. Therefore, population inversion is attained between the states E 3 and E2. A chance photon of energy

hv = (E3 – E2) emitted spontaneously can start a chain of stimulated emissions, bringing the atoms to the lower laser

level E2. From state E2, the atoms subsequently under go non–radiative transitions to the ground state E1 and will be
once again available for excitation, making it possible for light to be emitted continuously.
• The lower laser transition level in this scheme is nearly vacant. Therefore, less pump power is sufficient to achieve
population inversion.
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He-Ne lasers
 This was the first gas laser to be operated successfully.
 It was invented by Ali Javan and his co-workers at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the USA
in 1961.
 Its usual operation wavelength is 632.8nm in the red portion of the visible spectrum.
 He-Ne laser is a four-level laser.

Schematic of He-Ne lasers

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Constructions of a He-Ne lasers
 This consists of a mixture of helium and neon gases in a ratio of about 10:1.
 The setup consists of a long and narrow discharge tube of length 80 cm and diameter of 1 cm.
 The pressure inside the tube is about 1mm of Hg.
 The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by an electrical discharge of around 1000 volts
through an anode and cathode at each end of the glass tube
 The optical cavity of the laser typically consists of a plane, high reflecting mirror at one end of the
laser tube, and a partially transparent mirror of approximately 1% transmission at the other end.
Working mechanism of a He-Ne lasers
 Electric discharge is passed through the gas. As electrons have a smaller mass than ions, they
acquire a higher velocity.
 The He atoms are more readily excitable than Neon as they are in higher concentration. The role of
He atoms is to assist in pumping Ne atoms to higher energy levels via inter atomic collisions.
 Electrons collides with the He atoms, excite them to the metastable states 2 3S1 (19.81eV) and 21S0
(20.61eV) stay for a sufficiently long time.
 The excited He atoms losses energy through collision with unexcited Ne atoms, Ne atoms are
excited to the metastable states 4S (18.7eV) & 4S (20.66eV) which have nearly the same energy as
3 1 1 0
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 The probability of energy transfer from He atoms
to Neon atoms is more as there are 10 He atoms to
1Neon atoms in the medium.
 Population inversion is achieved between 5s & 4p,
5s & 3p, 4s & 3p.
 5s – 3p transition generates a laser beam of red
colour of wavelength 632.8nm.

 4s – 3p transition produces a laser beam of wavelength 1.15µm (not in the visible region).
 5s – 4p transition results in a laser beam of 3.39µm (not in the visible region).
 3p – 3s transition generates incoherent light due to spontaneous emission (~600.0nm).

 From level 3s, the Ne atoms are brought back to the ground state through collisions with the walls.
 Also since 3s level is a metastable state, it can decrease the population inversion by exciting atoms from
3s to 3p. Hence the tube is made narrow so that Ne atoms in level 3s de excite by collision with the walls
of the tube.
 By a proper design of resonator , laser action in Ne is obtained in the visible region (632.8nm)
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Advantages of Helium - Neon Laser
 He-Ne laser tube has very small length approximately from 10 to 100cm.
 Cost of He-Ne laser is less from most of other lasers.
 Construction of He-Ne laser is also not very complex.
 He-Ne laser provide inherent safety due to lower power output

Disadvantages of Helium - Neon Laser

 He-Ne laser is low gain system / device.
 High voltage requirement.
 Escaping of gas from laser plasma tube.

Applications
 The Narrow red beam of He-Ne laser is used in supermarkets to read bar codes.
 The He- Ne Laser is used in Holography in producing the 3D images of objects.
 He-Ne lasers have many industrial and scientific uses, and are often used in laboratory demonstrations of
optics.
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Semiconductor Laser
 A semiconductor laser diode is a device capable of producing a lasing action by applying a potential
difference across a modified PN junction. This modified PN-junction is heavily doped and contained
within a cavity thus providing the gain medium for the laser. A feedback circuit is also implemented in
order to control the amount of current sent to the laser diode.
Constructions of Semiconductor lasers
 P and N type semiconductor (GaAS) which are
heavily doped. Diode chip is 500 𝜇
𝑚 long and
about 100 𝑚
wide and thick.
 A pair of parallel planes cleaved at the two ends of
the PN junction provides the required reflection to
form the cavity. The two remaining sides of the
diode are roughened to eliminate lasing action in
that direction. The entire structure is packaged in
small case which looks like a metal case.
 Positive and negative terminals are connected to
Schematic illustration of a GaAs homojunction laser
the top and bottom sides of the diode laser.
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 Due to very high doping on n-side, the donar levels are broadened and extend into the conduction band.
Electrons occupy the portion of the conduction band lying below the fermi level.
 On the heavily doped p-side, the fermi level lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portion
of the valence band that lies above the Fermi level. At equilibrium, the Fermi level is uniform across the
junction.
 When the junction is forward biased, electrons and holes are injected into the junction region in high
concentrations. At low forward biased, the electron holes recombination causes spontaneous emission
of the photons and the junction acts as an LED. As the forward current increases, the intensity of light
increases linearly.
 PHYSICS-1
 When the current reaches a threshold value (Forward base current higher than the band gap, I f>Eg), the

carrier concentrations in the junction region will rise to a very high value. As a result, the region contains a
large concentration of electrons within the conduction band and simultaneously a large number of holes
within the valence band.
 The condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow junction region. The narrow zone is called
the” inversion region” or ”active region” due to the recombination of holes and electrons; there is the
emission of spontaneous photons.
 The spontaneous photons propagating in the junction plane stimulate the conduction electrons to jump
into the vacant states of the valence band. This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent
radiation. GaAs laser emits light at a wavelength of “9000˚ 𝐴” in the IR region.
Advantages
 The Laser diode operates in lower power as compared to other laser.
 It gives high power output as compared to other lasers.
 The laser diode is smaller in size as compared to other types of laser.
 It is easily manufactured in arrays.
 It is the cheaper device to produce laser output.
 Laser diode has high efficiency.
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Disadvantages
 Laser diode produce more divergent laser beam.
 They are requires big and costly optics for large source size.
 It has critical heating problem.
 They are requires high drive current to drive the large laser pellets.

Applications
 Consumer Electronics: CD/DVD players, barcode readers, laser printers, fibre optic communication etc.
 Medical Equipment: These are used for non-invasive cataract surgery, the removal of cancerous cells,
and other medical procedures.
 Scientific Instruments: Lasers are employed in scientific instruments like rangefinders, spectrometric
instruments, and remote contactless measurement equipment.
 Industrial Applications: These include the precision cutting of materials using high-intensity laser
beams generated by laser diodes. In 3D printing, they are also utilised to soften the substance.
 PHYSICS-1: Lasers Applications
Semiconductor lasers He:Ne, Semiconductor lasers

Laser Pointers
Type: Diode
Greenlight- 650nm
 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
Nd : YAG lasers

This photograph shows the laser-ranging facility at

the Goddard Geophysical and Astronomical
Observatory in Greenbelt, USA. The facility helps
NASA keep track of orbiting satellites. Both
beams shown, coming from two different lasers, are
pointed at NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter,
which is orbiting the Moon. Here, scientists are using
the visible, green wavelength of light. The laser
facility at the Université Côte d’Azur in Grasse,
France, developed a new technique that uses
infrared light, which is invisible to the human eye, to
beam laser light to the Moon.
PHYSICS-1: LASERS
The SuperCam instrument, a new and more
powerful version of ChemCam, is designed to
take Mars exploration to a new level. Like
ChemCam, the SuperCam laser uses an infrared
beam to heat material to a temperature of
around 10,000°C and vaporise it – a method
called LIBS - Laser-Induced Breakdown
spectroscopy. Coupled with a special camera,
this technology makes it possible to determine
the chemical composition of Martian rock
samples by measuring the colours of light in the
resulting plasma.
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)
is a type of atomic emission spectroscopy which
uses a highly energetic laser pulse as the
excitation source.
 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
Gas and solid state lasers are widely used in the cutting and welding process

CO2 (gas lasers), Fiber lasers and Nd:YAG lasers are widely
used in the cutting process.
 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
Argon, Diode and Nd-YAG Lasers CO2 Lasers

Laser Vision Correction also called Laser

Refractive Procedures are used to correct
refractive errors such as near-sightedness
(myopia), far-sightedness (hyperopia),
astigmatism and the need for reading
glasses (presbyopia). They can eliminate
an individual’s dependency on corrective
lenses.
 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
He-Ne, diode lasers in particle size distribution analysis

• Pharmaceutical Industry

• Chemical Industry

• Environmental Monitoring

• Research and Development

• Process Control and Optimization

Nd : YAG and He: Ne lasers for Raman Spectroscope

A Raman spectroscope is a
chemical analysis technique
that provides detailed
information about chemical
structure, phase and
crystallinity, and molecular
interactions.
 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
Laser problems

The energy of Photon that emits lasers E=hv

 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
List of Problems

1. A 10mW laser has a beam diameter of 1.6mm. What is the intensity of the light assuming
that it is uniform across the beam?
2. A He-Ne laser produces an output power of 5mW. If it emits light of wavelength 632.8nm,
calculate the number of photos emitted by the laser in one second.
3. A transition between the energy levels E 2 and E1 produces a light of wavelength 632.8nm,
calculated as the energy of the emitted photons.
4. The bandgap of GaAs is 1.5eV. What is the wavelength of the laser beam emitted by the
GaAs diode laser?
5. Calculate the divergence of light beam issuing out of He-Ne laser, which produces spot
diameters of 4 mm and 6 mm at 1m and 2m distances respectively.

6. 10 mw laser has a beam diameter of 1.6 mm. What is the intensity of the light assuming that
it is uniform across the beam?

7. A laser beam has a power of 50mW. It has an aperture of 5×10 –3m and wavelength 7000Å.
The beam is focused with a lens of foal length of 0.2m. Calculate the areal spread and
intensity of the image.
 PHYSICS-1: LASERS
Model questions

1. What is the role of metastable state?

2. What are Einstein’s coefficients? Explain the conclusion of them.

3. Explain the conditions for light amplification.

4. Explain the lasing action with the help of three level energy diagram. Give any two
applications of lasers

5. How population inversion is achieved in a He-Ne laser?

7. State a few applications of Semiconductor laser.

9. Explain the phenomenon of total internal reflection of light. How is it used in fiber optic
communications?

10. What is meant by the critical propagation angle of an optical fibre? Obtain an expression for
the critical propagation angle.
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
 1870 John Tyndall, a British physicist demonstrated that light can
be guided along the curve of a stream of water. Owing to total
internal reflections light gets confined to the water stream and the
stream appears luminous.
 1950’s, the transmission of images through optical fibres was
realized in practice. Hopkins and Kapany developed the flexible
fibrescope, which was used by the medical world in remote
illumination and viewing the interior of human body. It was Kapany
who coined the term fibre optics.
 1966, Charles Kao and George Hockham proposed the
transmission of information over glass fibre, but the fibres
available at that time heavily attenuated light propagating through
them.
 1970, Corning Glass Works produced low-loss glass fibres. The
invention of solid state lasers in 1970 made optical communications
practicable. Commercial communication systems based on
optical fibres made their appearance by 1977.
 Apart from the use as communicational channel.
 Fibro-scopes made of optical fibres are widely used in medical
diagnostics.
 Sensors for detecting electrical, mechanical, thermal energies are
made using optical fibres.
An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent
dielectric, (glass or clear plastic), which guides light waves along its
length by total internal reflection.
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
Fermat's Principle: Light travels between two points
along the path that requires the least time, as compare
to other paths.
It considers the quickest time to cover the path and not the
shortest distance.
The time taken by light ray to travel a distance dS in the medium is
given by,

It is known that, refractive index ‘n’ is

A
The total time taken by light ray to travel the path AB
along the curve I is given by

Light ray will choose the path with the shortest travel
time among numerous paths connecting two points,
such as A and B.
A

B B
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
 When light passes from rarer to denser medium, it
changes its speed and direction due to the change in
the refractive index of the mediums.
 The light ray follows the path that minimizes the time
taken to travel from the source to the destination point.
 The time taken to travel between the two points is
determined by dividing the distance in each medium by
the speed of light within that specific medium.

In order to minimize the time, set the derivative of time

with respect to x equal to zero

Sine is opposite side over hypotenuse to relate the lengths to the angles of incidence and reflection

Snell’s Law
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
Total internal reflection
A medium having a lower refractive index is said to be an optically rarer medium while a medium
having a higher refractive index is known as an optically denser medium. When a ray of light passes
from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it is bent away from the normal in the rarer medium.

Snell’s law 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2= ( 𝑛𝑛 12 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 … … … (1)

where is the angle of incidence of light ray in the denser medium and is the angle of refraction in the
rarer medium. Also n1 > n2. When the angle of incidence, in the denser medium is increased, the
transmission angle, increases and the refracted rays bend more and more away from the normal. At some
particular angle the refracted ray glides along the boundary surface so that = 90°.
At angles greater than there are no refracted rays at all. The rays are reflected back into the denser
medium as though they encountered a specular reflecting surface.
• If < , the ray refracts into the rarer medium
• If = , the ray just grazes the interface of rarer-to-denser media
• If > , the ray is reflected back into the denser medium.
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
The phenomenon in which light is totally reflected from a denser-to-rarer medium boundary is known as
total internal reflection. The rays that experience total internal reflection obey the laws of reflection.

Therefore, the critical angle can be determined from Snell’s law.

When, =

Substitute in eqn.1
=

When the rarer medium is air, n2 = 1 and writing n1 = n, we obtain

Problem: In an optical fibre, the core material has refractive index 1.43 and refractive index of clad
material is 1.4. Find the propagation angle.
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
Critical Angle of Propagation
Let us consider a step-index optical fibre into which light is launched at one end. The end at which light
enters the fibre is called the launching end. In a step-index fibre, the refractive index changes abruptly from
the core to the cladding. Now, we consider two rays entering the fibre at two different angles of incidence.

 The ray shown by the broken line is incident at an angle with respect to the axis of the fibre. This ray
undergoes refraction at point A on the interface between air and the core.
 The ray refracts into the fibre at an angle ( < ). The ray reaches the core-cladding interface at point D. At
point D, refraction takes place again and the ray travels in the cladding.
 Finally, at point E, the ray refracts once again and emerges out of fibre into the air. It means that the ray
does not propagate through the fibre.
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
• The ray incident at an angle undergoes refraction at point A on the interface and
propagates at an angle in the fibre.
• At point B on the core-cladding interface, the ray undergoes total internal reflection,
since n1 > n2.
• Let us assume that the angle of incidence at the core-cladding interface is the critical
angle , where is given by
=
• A ray incident with an angle larger than will be confined to the fibre and propagate in the
fibre.
• A ray incident, at the core-cladding boundary, at the critical angle is called a critical ray.
The critical ray makes an angle with axis of the fibre.
• It is obvious that rays with propagation angles larger than will not propagate in the fibre.
Therefore, the angle is called the critical propagation angle. From triangle ABC.
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
=𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐 Also, =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
=

=
Thus, only those rays which are refracted into the cable at angles < will propagate in the
optical fibre.
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
Construction of optical fibre

The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region known as the core. In general, the diameter of
the core is of the order of 8.5 mm to 62.5 µm.
(ii) It is surrounded by a coaxial middle region known as the cladding. The diameter of the cladding is of
the order of 125 mm. The refractive index of cladding (n2) is always lower than that of the core (n 1).
Light launched into the core and striking the core-to-cladding interface at an angle greater than critical angle
will be reflected back into the core. Since the angles of incidence and reflection are equal, the light will
continue to rebound and propagate through the fibre.
(iii) The outermost region is called the sheath or a protective buffer coating. It is a plastic coating given to
the cladding for extra protection. This coating is applied during the manufacturing process to provide
physical and environmental protection for the fiber. The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
Functions of Cladding
 The cladding maintains uniform size of the fibre,
protects the walls of the fibre from chipping, and
reduces the size of the cone of light that will be trapped
in the fibre.
 It reduces the loss of light from the core into the
surrounding air.
 Protects the fiber from physical damage and absorbing surface contaminants.
 Prevents leakage of light energy from the fibre through evanescent waves.
 Prevents leakage of light energy from the core through frustrated total internal reflection.
 Reduces the cone of acceptance and increases the rate of transmission of data.
 A solid cladding, instead of air, also makes it easier to add other protective layers over the fibre.

Frustrated total internal reflection

PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber
PHYSICS-1: Optical Fiber