FROM

VILLAGES
TO CITIES
What will we
learn today?

- Use of Iron Tools

- Agricultural production
- Economic Growth (Coins,
Trade)
- Crafts and Literature
- Sangam Age
INTRODUCTION

In around 6th Century BCE. Iron began to be used extensively in India. It was
used mainly in the form of Agricultural tools like axe and ploughs. With
increase in agricultural production, people began to also engage in other
activities such as craft production which further led to development of craft
centres and then trade also began with the exchange of such products. All
these factors led to urbanisation of cities.
THE ROLE OF
IRON
• 2500 years ago, iron made its appearance in
Indian agriculture. Iron tools have been found in
numerous burials as well as in other places.
Tools included axes, ploughs and other
agricultural tools which immensely helped
increase agricultural production.
• Use of Iron objects began in the late second
millennium BC, however they were of lower
quality. In the later period with increase of use
of these tools the quality also improved.
Artefacts like agricultural tools, vessels, weapons
etc. are found. Use of iron-smelting
techniques(Evident through presence of smelting
ores in various places) may also have brought
this transformation.
IRON TOOLS
• It is important to understand how iron helped
increase agricultural production. Iron tools
were better than wooden tools- for example
Iron ploughs could go much deeper in the
ground as compared to wooden ploughs.
Earlier forests were cleared by burning, with
coming of axes it became easier to do so.

• Not only agriculture, but crafts also found a

way to improve with coming of iron. Tools used
to make items from glass, beads, bones etc.
improved and eventually craft techniques also
as in the case of wooden chariot and cart
making.
AGRICULTURE,CRAFTS AND NEW TOWNS

With two-three crops a year adequate

surplus of crops was produced. To achieve
this irrigation methods were used such as
channels, canals etc. With accumulation
of surplus there also was a need for
authority to control over those who
worked on crops and also the craftsmen.
Many people worked in both agriculture
and crafts. Those who worked in crafts
used the barter system to exchange their
products for food grains.
During this period some towns grew as a result
of economic activities. Agricultural surplus was
brought to a particular place, craft products to
another and so on. They exchanged their
commodities with each other according to the
barter system. Such places experienced
urbanisation quicker. Ujjain is an important
example of this.

Another factor was availability of raw

materials. Potters moved to areas with better
soil, wood workers wherever good quality of
wood was available and so on. This led to
development of commercial centers. In the
Gangetic plains Shravasti, Rajgriha were such
centers.
THE TOWN AND ITS PEOPLE
• The settlements in town were based on hierarchy. The smallest
settlement was known as grama (Village). Exchange centers were
called nigama and putabhedana. Ports were also present at this time
and were important for trade.
• Towns were called nagara, Mahanagara was used to identify the
bigger towns.
• The town had specific sections for each occupation. The central area
was reserved for the ruler as seen in Kaushambi.
• As towns were formed due to migration from villages for exchange
of goods there was no kinship among the people. Relations were
formed based on occupations and administrative machinery. They
were inhabited by people of diverse occupations, social classes and
religious sects. What earlier were commercial centres eventually
grew into such towns.
• There are distinct names for people
associated with different occupations
such as :
Grama Bhojaka- Village Headman (largest
landowner for whom laborers worked on
the fields)
Grihapatis –Small Landowners
Dasa karamkaras- Labors who worked on
the field and didn’t own any land
• In South India large landowners were
known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen
were known as uzhavar, and landless
labourers, including slaves, were known
as kadaisiyar and adimai.
 CRAFT

• Crafts formed an important part of the city and there existed

many craft centres for different kinds. Associations of crafts
persons called shrenis also came up during this period.

• Crafts shown an improvement from the earlier period. Objects

were made using items from bone, glass, ivory, semi-precious
stones ,shells, and stones.

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) refers to a specific kind

of pottery which was black in colour and had a shiny surface. It
was very important during this period and was found in many
parts of the country indicating that it was exchanged in trade.
 TRADE
• The trade routes during this period were known as Uttarapatha and
Dakshinapatha.
• The Uttarapatha was the main trade route of north India. It
stretched from the north-west to the Bay of Bengal.Some of the
places on this route were Lahore, Bhatinda, Delhi, Hastinapura, etc.
Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi, and Allahabad.
• Items like lapis lazuli from Central Asia are found in regions like
Bengal which suggests the existence of these routes along with
textual sources. The route was used by land and water both. Many
objects have been found on river banks which indicates the
exchange of such items through river routes.
• The Dakshinapatha or southern route stretched from Pataliputra to
Pratishthana on the Godavari, and also the western coast.
• Like modern day customs officials there existed kammikas who
levied taxes and could confiscate objects of those evading taxation.
There also royal officials called rajabhatas who provided security to
travelers and traders on these routes.
• Trade with areas like north Afghanistan and Iran brought in precious
items such as silver, gold, lapis lazuli, and jade.
COINS

Coins are an important part of economy.

They indicate exchange relations.
They are a uniform means of exchange and
establish the status of economy.
During this period Punch marked coins are
found in great numbers. These coins were
made of metal sheets or small spheres and
were stamped with symbols. The Pali texts
refer to coins such as kahapana, nikkha etc.
Availability of coins didn’t mean barter
system came to an end. It brought about
certain economic changes and new methods
like money lending began.
 SANGAM AGE

- The Sangam period is an important period of South Indian history.

- The name is derived from the Sanskrit word Sangha meaning an
assembly.
- The Tamil Sangam was basically an assembly of poets and bards. It
is believed that the first Sangam was attended by Gods in Madurai,
second at Kapatapuram and the third in Madurai.. No literature
from the first Sangam has survived.
- The literature of this period provides us with details on the society
and culture of the period. It includes anthologies of poems like
Ettutokai , and Pattuppattu considered to have been composed
3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. They were compiled into
anthologies in about the mid-8th century.
- The Tolkappiyam is an important work which talks about
grammar.
- There are two kinds of poems found akam – love poems and
puram- based on war.
- The poems talk about the daily life also and give reference to
objects such as weapons like iron arrows, weapons used by kings.
 REFERENCEs
https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-
india/sangam-period-literature-
administration-and-economic-condition-
during-sangam-period/739
http://www.kkhsou.in/main/history/india6th_
THE END century.html

Penguin History of Early India From the Origins

to AD 1300 –Romila Thapar
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India:
From the Stone Age to the 12th Century -
Upinder Singh