Atomic Structure:

Bohr model
K. Donaldson
 Specific Objectives
• Use an energy level diagram and emission spectrum to
explain discrete energy levels in the atom.

• Describe the atomic orbitals.

• Explain the presence of subshells and orbitals

• Draw representations of s- and p- orbitals

• Write the electronic configurations for in terms of s, p, d for

H to Ca

• State the factors which influence the first ionization energy

of elements.
 Energy levels and Emission Spectra
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• Electrons in an atom have fixed amounts of
energy
– the smallest possible quantity of energy that an
atom posses is called a quantum of energy

• Electrons are arranged at different levels

based on the energy that they posses: energy
levels
Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• At the lowest possible energy level (smallest
amount of energy ) the electron is said to be in its
ground state.

• When electrons absorb energy (example heat

from a Bunsen flame or from an electric
discharge) they can go through a process called
excitation .

• During this process they are now in an excited

state change energy levels (move to a higher
energy level)
 Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• When the electrons move to these higher energy
levels they are not stable
– after a while will lose the energy they absorbed and
fall back to a lower energy level .

NOTE
• When an electron moves from one energy level
to another this is called electronic transmission .
Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• The energy levels have fixed values so the
amount of energy it loses will be equal to the
difference in the energy levels.

• An emission spectra shows evidence of this.

 Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• The energy released from the electrons moving from
an higher energy level to a lower one is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.

• Electromagnetic radiation can be considered as a

stream of photons (particles with no mass) each
travelling in a wave like pattern moving at the speed
of light .

• Electromagnetic radiation is energy that can travel

through a vacuum . Light is a form of electromagnetic
radiation.
Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• Since electromagnetic radiation travels like
waves: electromagnetic radiations are
characterized by their frequencies and
wavelengths.
Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• The frequency and the wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation is related by:
c = νλ
ν = c/λ

ν= Frequency s-1 (Hz)

λ = Wavelength m or nm
C = speed of light ( 3x 108 ms-1)
Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• Energy is directly proportional to the frequency of the
radiation,
– the change in energy from one level to another can also be
calculated using the following equation:
E= hν
Where
• E = energy
• ν= frequency
• h is Planks constant ( 6.63 x 10-34 Js)
 Energy levels and Emission Spectra
• The energy equation can be rearranged:
⮚ E=hc/λ

• The whole range of frequencies of electromagnetic

radiation is called the electromagnetic spectrum.

• When energy is absorbed or emitted by an element

it will correspond to a specific point on this
spectrum .
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Different spectrums
 Continuous Spectrum
• Continuous spectrum - a spectrum (light
emitted by a white-hot lamp filament) having
no apparent breaks or gaps throughout its
wavelength range
 Continuous Spectrum
• When a beam of white light passes through a
prism on to a screen,
– a spectrum of colours made up of all wavelength
of visible light is seen like in a rainbow.
Absorption or Discontinuous Spectrum
• If a white light passes through a substance the
atoms can absorb light of certain wavelength
and dark lines appear in the spectrum.

– A line spectrum is formed which appears as

distinct lines and not a band of colours
Absorption Spectrum
 Absorption Spectrum
• Because different types of atoms have
different energy levels,
– the photons produced will be different and so the
line spectra for different elements will be
different.

• Line spectra can be used to identify elements.

 NOTE
• All substances produce an emission spectrum
when they are excited whether by heat energy or
electrical energy.

• The emission (and absorption) spectra of atoms

give us an understanding of the arrangement of
electrons within the atom.

• Each atom has a unique emission or absorption

spectra
 Emission Spectrum
• If atoms are supplied with heat or electrical energy to
high enough temperatures,
– they emit energies of a certain wavelength as the excited
electrons return to their ground state (stable orbit)

– An emission spectrum is produced which shows coloured

lines on a dark background

• These lines correspond with specific wavelength on the

electromagnetic spectrum and produce a unique spectrum
 Emission Spectrum
• Emission spectrum usually looks like a band of
lines on a black background
Emission spectra of Hydrogen
 The Bohr Model of the atom
• This model aimed to explain the observation that
electromagnetic radiation emitted by an excited atom has
specific energies.

• Electrons are in circular orbits of fixed or quantized energy.

– They will not absorb or emit energy as long as they stay within
this orbit.

• Therefore the energy of the electron in an atom must also

be quantized..
– i.e..an electron can only have certain discrete energy levels.
The Bohr Model of the atom
 Emission spectra of Hydrogen
• Consists of several series of lines.
– These lines arise from the transition of electrons from orbit
of higher energy quantum number to orbits of lower
energy quantum number

• The complete spectrum of hydrogen consists of

separate series of distinct wavelengths concentrated in
the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum

• The six series of lines are named after their

discoverers.
 Emission spectra of Hydrogen
• In the order of wavelength:
– Lyman Series (ultraviolet)
• Previously excited electron from higher energy level to n = 1
– Balmer Series (visible region)
• Previously excited electron falls back to the n = 2 energy level
– Paschen (Infared)
• Arise from the transitions from high energy levels to n = 3
– Bracket Series (Infared)
• Arise from transitions from higher energy levels to n = 4
– Pfund Series (Infared)
• Arise from transitions from higher energy levels to n = 5
– Humphrey Series (Infared)
• Arise from transitions from higher energy levels to n = 6
Emission Spectra of Hydrogen
 Convergence Limit
• The separate lines in a series become closer
together as their wavelength decreases
– i.e their frequency (and energy) increases
– At the high frequency end of the series, the lines
are so close together that they form a continuous
band of radiation, known as continuum

• The start of this continuum, beyond which

separate lines cannot be distinguished is called
convergence limit.
 Convergence Limit
• The convergence limit corresponds to the
point at which the energy of an electron
within the atom is no longer quantized.

– At this point , the nucleus has lost all influence

over the electron; the atom has become ionized.
 Shells and Subshells
• Bohr labeled each of the energy levels with a
number called the principal quantum number, n.

• The energy level closest to the nucleus is labeled

n=1, the next n=2 etc.

• Each of these energy levels is called a shell.

• The principal quantum number defines the energy

level of the electron in a given shell.
 Shells and Subshells
• The Bohr model of shells is one dimensional and
accurately depicts the quantum number of
hydrogen but not the other elements with more
than one electron .

• When thinking about the position of the electron

– It is impossible to determine both the position and

the momentum of an electron in an atom
simultaneously with great certainty.

• This is know as The Heisenberg Uncertainty

Principle
 Shells and Subshells
• Heisenberg showed an electron’s position can never be
accurately be determined.
• A wave function, however, tells where the electron will
most probably be found.
– Schrödinger Wave Equation. (assumes wave particle duality)

– This equation describes the electron in terms of probability

density, the space in which the electron is likely to be found

– This equation explains the existence of both shells and

subshells

• The area the electron is located is called an orbital

(spatial distribution of electron density)
 Shells and Subshells
• Schrodinger described an atomic orbital model
with electrons in three dimensions with 3
quantum numbers
– Principal (n) – describe the energy level of the
electron

– Angular momentum quantum number (l) – describes

the sublevels in n and the shape of the orbitals

– Magnetic quantum number (m) – describes the

number and orientation of orbital in space

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 Shells and Subshells
• The principal quantum number n describes
the energy level of the electrons where the
maximum number of electrons for n = 2n2
– n=1 contains 2 electrons
– n=2 has 8 electrons
– n=3 has 18 electrons , etc
 Shells and Subshells
• Angular quantum number l, describes the sublevels
in n and the shape of the orbitals.

• The sublevels are given letter designations

– s, p, d, and f

• Each energy level has n sublevels .

– n = 1 has 1 sublevel (1s)

– n = 2 has 2 sublevels ( 2s , 2p)
– n = 3 has 3 sublevels ( 3s, 3p, 3d)
– n = 4 has 4 sublevels ( 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f)
 Shells and Subshells
• The magnetic quantum number, m describes
the number and orientation of orbitals within
a sublevel
– s has 1 orbital and can hold up to 2 electrons

– p has 3 orbitals and can hold up to 6 electrons

– d has 5 orbitals and can hold up to 10 electrons

– f has 7 orbitals and can hold up to 14 electrons

 Shapes of the Orbitals
• S orbitals are spherical

• There is only one possible orientation of a

sphere

• There is one s orbital per shell

• The size on the orbital increases as you go to a

higher shell
 Shells and Subshells
• p-orbitals - dumbbell-shaped.

• The electrons are distributed in identical lobes on

either side of the nucleus.

• The lobes are separated by a nodal plane that cuts

through the nucleus.

• When l = 1, ml has three possibilities,

– one along the x, y and z axes oriented at 900 angle to each
other.

• As n increases, the size of the p orbital increases

ARRANGEMENT OF THE ATOMIC
ORBITALS/SUB-SHELLS
Relative energies of the Sublevels/orbitals
 Electronic Configurations (E.C.)
• Electronic configurations refers to the arrangement
of electrons in an atom

• Each atom has its own electronic configuration

• Orbitals are at different energy levels hence there

are 3 basic rules to writing electron configurations.
 Electronic Configurations (E.C.)
1. The Pauli Exclusion Principle states
– No more than two electrons can occupy an orbital

2. The aufbau principle states

– Electrons are added to an atom, one at a time starting
with the lowest energy orbital
• For example, the 1s shell is filled before the 2s subshell is
occupied

3. Hund’s Rule states

– Electrons fill degenerate orbitals one at a time with
parallel spin before a second electron is added with
opposite spin
 Representing electronic configuration

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 Examples
• N
• O
• F
• Ne
• Write the electronic configuration
• represent spins in box notations
Electronic Configurations (E.C.)
 Electronic Configurations (E.C.)
• For a one-electron hydrogen atom, orbitals on
the same energy level
have the same energy.
 Electronic Configurations (E.C.)
• As the number of electrons increases, though,
so does the repulsion between them.

• In a many-electron atoms, orbitals on the

same energy level no longer have the exact
same energy
Energies of Orbitals
START HERE AND MOVE ALONG
THE ARROWS ONE AT A TIME
 Activity
• Write the electronic configuration for the
following elements and ions
• Sc
• Cr
• Cu
• Mg2+
• N3-
 Ionization Energies

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• Ionization energy is the energy required to

turn one mole of an element in its gaseous
state to an ion with a single positive charge
(that is to remove one electron)
– This is the first ionization energy

• When the second electron is removed

– it’s the second ionization energy , and so on
 Ionization Energies
• Ionization energy is always positive as it will
always require energy to remove an electron.

• The value of the ionization energy will depend on

the following :
– the distance of outer electrons from the nucleus
– the size of the positive nuclear charge
– the screening (shielding) effect of the inner shells of
electrons.
 Ionization Energies
The distance of the outermost electron from
the nucleus

• As this distance increases, the attraction of the

positive nucleus for the negative electron
decreases and consequently the ionization
energy decreases.
 Ionization Energies
The size of the positive nuclear charge

• As the nuclear charge becomes more positive with

increasing proton number , its attraction for the
outermost electron increases and consequently the
ionization energy increases.

• Note
The increasing atomic radii and electron screening can
outweigh the effect of the nuclear charge
 Ionization Energies
The screening (shielding) effect of the inner
shells of electrons.

• Electrons in the inner shells exert a repelling

effect on electrons in the outermost shell of an
atom, this is called screening /shielding .

• The shielding effect can be defined as a reduction

in the effective nuclear charge on the electron
cloud, due to a difference in the attraction forces
on the electrons in the atom.
 Ionization Energies
• The screening effect by the inner electrons is
more effective the closer these inner electrons
are to the nucleus which means that:

– Electrons in shells of lower principal quantum

numbers are more effective shields than those of
higher quantum numbers

– Electrons in the same shell have a negligible

shielding effect on each other.
 Ionization Energies
Evidence of energy levels and subshells

• An element can have as much successive

ionization energies as it has electrons.

• The patterns in successive ionization energies

for an element gives important information
about the structure of the element .
 Ionization Energies
Why are successive ionisation energies always
larger?

• When the first electron is removed a positive ion

is formed.

• There is an increased attraction on the remaining

electrons by the positive nucleus
– hence the energy required to remove the next
electron is larger.
 Ionization Energies
• Each successive ionisation energy is bigger
than the previous one for the same reason.

• Some of the increases are much bigger,

however, and these big jumps gives us
evidence for the main principle,
– electron shells.
 Ionization Energies
• Example: What group must this element be
in?
1 2 3 4 5
Ionisation 590 1150 4940 6480 8120
energy kJ
mol-1
 Ionization Energies
• There is a big jump between the 2nd and 3rd
ionisations energies which means
– this element must be in group 2 of the periodic
table as the 3rd electron is removed from an
electron shell closer to the nucleus with less
shielding and so has a larger ionisation energy
 Ionization Energies
• The pattern in the first ionisation energy of
each successive element in the periodic table
also gives us useful information about
electronic structure.
 Ionization Energies
• The noble gases are always at the maximum
peak for each period, but there is a decrease
in ionisation energy down the group. (true of
all groups).

– This is because as one goes down the group the

outer electrons become further from the nucleus
and become more shielded from the nuclear pull
by complete inner shells
 Ionization Energies
• There is a large drop each time between the
group 0 elements and the group1 elements.

– This is because the element in group 1 will have its

outer electron in a new shell further from the
nucleus and is more shielded.
– Group 1 element is easier to remove and has a
lower ionisation energy
 Ionization Energies
• From the graphs of successive ionisation
energies below, explain which group of the
periodic table the elements belong to.
 Ionization Energies

• 2) Study the graph of 4th to 11th ionisation

energies for aluminium.

• a) Explain why there is a large increase in

ionisation energy between the 9th and 10th
ionisation energies.
 Ionization Energies

• Explain why the increase between the 6th and

7th ionisation energies is greater than the
increase between the 5th and 6th ionisation
energies.
Let’s Examine and Analyse