1
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2
POSITIVE PLATE
2V NEGATIVE PLATE
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY
CELL
12 VOLTS
BATTERY BATTERY
(3 CELLS)
3
CELL & BATTERY SYMBOLS
4
PRIMARY CELLS
• IN A PRIMARY CELL, CURRENT WILL CONTINUE TO FLOW
UNTIL CHEMICAL ACTION HAD DISSOLVED THE
NEGATIVE PLATE INTO THE ELECTROLYTE, AT WHICH
POINT THE CELL WOULD BE EXHAUSTED AND OF NO
FURTHER USE
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5
SECONDARY CELLS
• IN A SECONDARY CELL, THE CHEMICAL ACTION THAT
TAKES PLACE WHILST THE CELL IS PRODUCING A
CURRENT FLOW IS REVERSIBLE.
• THIS ENABLS THE CELL TO BE RE-USED.
• THE PROCESS OF REVERSING THE CHEMICAL ACTION IS
REFERRED TO AS CHARGING AND ENTAILS PASSING A
CURRENT THROUGH THE CELL IN THE OPPOSITE
DIRECTION TO THE DISCHARGE CURRENT.
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6
SMALL
CURRENT LARGE
CAPACITY CURRENT
CAPACITY
SMALL AREA
PLATES
LARGE AREA
PLATES
7
CELL CAPACITY
CELL CAPACITY
• THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY THAT A CELL CAN PROVIDE
FROM NEW TO THE END OF ITS USEFUL VOLTAGE ON LOAD IS CALLED
THE CELL CAPACITY AND IS QUOTED IN AMPERE ‑HOURS (AH).
• CAPACITY VARIES WITH THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT DRAWN FROM THE
CELL, THE GREATER THE CURRENT THE LOWER THE CAPACITY,
THEREFORE CAPACITY IS NORMALLY QUOTED AT A STANDARD RATE.
• THE 1HR RATE IS THE INTERNATIONALLY ACCEPTED STANDARD FOR
NICKEL CADMIUM CELLS, WITH 10 HR OR 20 HR RATES BEING USED
FOR LEAD ACID CELLS.
• A CELL QUOTED AT 40AH AT THE 10 HR RATE WILL PROVIDE 4 AMPS
CONTINUOUSLY FOR 10 HOURS.
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A BATTERY QUOTED AT 40AH AT THE 1 HR RATE WILL PROVIDE 40
AMPS CONTINUOUSLY FOR 1 HOUR.
8
24V BATTERY RATED AT 40AH AT 10Hr RATE
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T 21.6V DISCHARGED
A
G
E 4 AMP 2 AMP
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
5h 10h 15h 20h
TIME
9
LEAD ACID DISCHARGE CURVE
2V CELL
(10 AMPERE/HOUR) BATTERY VOLTAGE = 8V
CAPACITY = 10 AMPERE/HOUR
BATTERY VOLTAGE = 2V
CAPACITY = 20 AMPERE/HOUR
10
CELL CAPACITY
4V CELL
(15 AMPERE/HOUR)
BATTERY VOLTAGE = 12V
CAPACITY = 30 AMPERE/HOUR
11
CELL CAPACITY
POSITIVE
TERMINAL
2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
NEGATIVE
TERMINAL
12
BATTERY CELL CONNECTION
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS 13
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS 14
15
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16
ELECTRODES
ELECTROLYTE
17
CHEMICAL ACTION IN A CELL
18
CHEMICAL ACTION IN A CELL
ELECTRON
FLOW
ELECTRON FLOW CONVENTIONAL FLOW
EXTERNAL OF THE EXTERNAL OF THE
BATTERY IS NEG - POS BATTERY IS POS - NEG
WITHIN THE BATTERY WITHIN THE BATTERY
IT IS POS - NEG IT IS NEG - POS
19
CHEMICAL ACTION IN A CELL
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20
POSITIVE PLATE NEGATIVE PLATE
GROUP GROUP
CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION
21
PLATE GROUPS
CELL
CONNECTOR VENT CAP
SEPERATOR
PROTECTOR CELL
COVER
TERMINAL
PLATE STRAP
POSTS
SEPERATORS
PLATE
22
CELL ELEMENT FOR A LEAD-ACID CELL
23
CELL ELEMENT FOR A LEAD-ACID CELL
CARRYING
HANDLE
VENT STOPPER
AND WASHER
CONNECTOR
BAR
TOP
COVER
CANNON CANNON
PLUG RECEPTACLE
BATTERY
CELLS
CONTAINER
24
AIRCRAFT LEAD ACID BATTERY - SOLID BLOCK CELLS
25
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE
H2 SO4
SULFURIC ACID
26
LEAD ACID BATTERY - OPERATION
ELECTRONS
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE
H2 SO4
SULFURIC ACID
27
LEAD ACID BATTERY - OPERATION
ELECTRONS
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE EXCESS OF
ELECTRONS
Pb SO4
H2 + SO4 -
SULFURIC ACID
28
LEAD ACID BATTERY - OPERATION
ELECTRONS FORCE ELECTRONS
NEGATIVE O2 RADICALS
INTO ELECTROLYTE
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE
O2
Pb SO4
LEAD SULFATE
H2 + SO4 -
SULFURIC ACID
29
LEAD ACID BATTERY - OPERATION
ELECTRONS
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE
POSITIVE LEAD
IONS O2
Pb SO4
Pb SO4
LEAD SULFATE
H2 + SO4 -
SULFURIC ACID
30
LEAD ACID BATTERY - OPERATION
ELECTRONS
ONCE LEAD SULFATE HAS FORMED
Pb Pb LEAD
ON
LEADBOTH THE POSITIVE
H2 O AND NEGATIVE
PLATES AND THE ELECTROLYTE
Pb SO4 H2 DILUTED
O
HAS BECOME BYPbTHE SO4
LEAD SULFATE
WATER THE BATTERY IS CONSIDERED
LEAD SULFATE
H2 SO4
“DISCHARGED”
H SO 2 4
31
LEAD ACID BATTERY - OPERATION
2.5
2.0
1.95
1.8
0 TIME
32
LEAD ACID DISCHARGE CURVE
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33
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE H2 O
Pb SO4 H2 O Pb SO4
LEAD SULFATE
LEAD SULFATE
H2 SO4
H2 SO4
34
LEAD ACID BATTERY - CHARGING
Pb O2 Pb LEAD
LEAD PEROXIDE
H2 SO4
H2 SO4
35
LEAD ACID BATTERY - CHARGING
FOLLOWING CHARGE
BATTERY VOLTAGE
MUST NOT FALL BELOW 28.5V
FINAL
30 - 32.4V “ON CHARGE”
V 28V VOLTAGE
O
L 24V
T
A
G
E
TIME
36
LEAD ACID CHARGE CURVE
CHARGED = 1.280
RUBBER
BULB DISCHARGED = 1.150
SYRINGE
1.100
1.150
1.100
FLOAT
1.250
1.300
1.350
1.400
RUBBER
TUBE LEAD
ACID
SCALE
37
HYDROMETER
CAPACITY TEST
• THIS TEST DETERMINES WHETHER THE
BATTERY WILL BE ABLE TO CARRY OUT
ITS FUNCTION AS AN EMERGENCY
POWER SOURCE.
• TO MEASURE THE BATTERIES
CAPACITY, A FULLY CHARGED BATTERY
IS DISCHARGED AT THE BATTERY’S
RATING AND THE TIME TAKEN TO
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DISCHARGE IS MEASURED
38
39
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40
OPEN CIRCUIT
28.5 VOLTAGE
24
20
12
0 LOW MEDIUM HIGH
APPLIED LOAD
41
CLOSED CIRCUIT VOTAGE - APPLIED LOAD
HIGHER LOAD
28.5 GREATER VOLTAGE
24 DROP
20
VOLTAGE DROP
DUE TO AFFECT
OF INTERNAL
12 RESISTANCE
0 LOW MEDIUM HIGH
APPLIED LOAD
42
CLOSED CIRCUIT VOTAGE - APPLIED LOAD
HIGH INTERNAL
28.5 OCV RESISTANCE
WHEN BATTERY IS
24 75% DISCHARGED
CCV WITH
MODERATE
LOAD
0 LOW MEDIUM DISCHARGED
STATE OF CHARGE
43
OCV - CCV - STATE OF CHARGE
LOAD
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
WHEN CONNECTED
DETERMINED BY THE SIZE
TO A LOAD
OF THE LOAD AND THE
BATTERY’S STATE OF CHARGE
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE =28.5 VOLTS
CLOSED CIRCUIT VOLTAGE =24 VOLTS
44
LEAD ACID BATTERY - INTERNAL RESISTANCE
LOAD
OCV = 28.5 VOLTS
6A
CCV = 24 VOLTS
INTERNAL RESISTANCE = 0.75
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE - CLOSED CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
CURRENT LOAD
45
LEAD ACID BATTERY - INTERNAL RESISTANCE
LOAD
OCV = 28.5 VOLTS
6A
CCV = 21 VOLTS
INTERNAL RESISTANCE = 1.25
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE - CLOSED CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
CURRENT LOAD
46
LEAD ACID BATTERY - INTERNAL RESISTANCE
47
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LEAD ACID BATTERY PROBLEMS
• SULPHATION
• BUCKLING
• SEDIMENTATION
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49
50
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51
52
NI-CAD BATTERY CELL
• VERY LOW INTERNAL RESISTANCE.
• HIGH CHARGING RATE WITHOUT DAMAGE.
• POSITIVE PLATES CONSTRUCTED USING NICKEL MESH
IMPREGNATED TO FORM NICKEL HYDROXIDES.
• NEGATIVE PLATES CONSTRUCTED USING NICKEL MESH
IMPREGNATED WITH CADMIUM.
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• POSITIVE & NEGATIVE PLATES ARE SEPARATED USING
A CONTINUOUS STRIP OF NYLON AND CELLOPHANE.
• CELLOPHANE ACTS AS A GAS BARRIER, PREVENTING
OXYGEN GIVEN OFF BY THE POSITIVE PLATES DURING
OVERCHARGING PASSING TO THE NEGATIVE PLATES53
THUS REDUCING CELL VOLTAGE.
CELLOPHANE
NYLON
NYLON
PLATE
NICKEL MESH
IMPREGNATED
IMPREGNATED
NICKELCADMIUM
HYDROXIDES
(NEGATIVE
(POSITIVE PLATES)
54
NI-CAD CELL CONSTRUCTION
BATTERY IS CONSIDERED DISCHARGED WHEN THE POSITIVE
PLATES BECOME NICKEL HYDROXIDE
AND THE NEGATIVE PLATES BECOME
CADMIUM HYDROXIDE
POSITIVE PLATES NEGATIVE PLATES
(NICKEL HYDROXIDES) (CADMIUM)
Ni2O3
HYDROXIDE IONS
Cd FROM ELECTROLYTE
Ni2OH2 COMBINES WITH
THUS ELECTRONS ARE OH2 CADMIUM
REMOVED FROM THE
POSITIVE PLATE AND COMBINATION
DELIVERED TO THE RELEASES ELECTRONS
NEGATIVE PLATE ONTO THE PLATE
OH2 KOH CADMIUM CONVERTED TO
CADMIUM HYDROXIDE
AT THE SAME TIME
HYDROXIDE IONS ELECTROLYTE
ARE RELEASED FROM POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
THE POSITIVE PLATES
INTO THE ELECTROLYTE BATTERY DISCHARGES
55
CHEMICAL ACTION NI-CAD CELL
ELECTROLYTE
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
& DISTILLED WATER
DISCHARGE CHARGE
LEVEL LEVEL
56
NI-CD CELL CONSTRUCTION
POSITIVE PLATES
CHARGED - Ni2OH2 & Ni2O3 (NICKEL HYDROXIDES)
DISCHARGED - Ni(OH)2 (NICKEL HYDROXIDE)
NEGATIVE PLATES
CHARGED - Cd (CADMIUM)
DISCHARGED - Cd(OH)2 (CADMIUM HYDROXIDE)
ELECTROLYTE
KOH (POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE)
NOTE THE RD IS UNAFFECTED BY STATE OF
CHARGE
LEVEL WILL GO DOWN AS ELECTROLYTE IS
ABSORBED BY THE PLATES DURING
DISCHARGE 57
THERMAL RUNAWAY
• DISCHARGING AND CHARGING CYCLE OF A NI-CAD
PRODUCES HIGH TEMPERATURES.
• IF NOT MONITORED THESE TEMPERATURES COULD
BREAK DOWN THE CELLOPHANE GAS BARRIER.
• THUS CREATING A SHORT CIRCUIT, ALLOWING
CURRENT FLOW TO INCREASE.
• THIS INCREASE IN CURRENT FLOW PRODUCES MORE
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HEAT.
• WHICH CAUSES MORE CURRENT AND SO ON UNTIL.
58
59
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60
24V BATTERY RATED AT 36 AH AT 1Hr RATE
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
TIME
61
Ni/Cd DISCHARGE CURVE
24V BATTERY RATED AT 36 AH (AMPERE/HOUR)
IF THE CHARGE CONTINUES
EXCESSIVE GASSING OCCURS
AND CAN CAUSE OVERHEATING
C OF BATTERY
E
L
L LOSS OF
VOLTAGE ELECTROLYTE CAN
INITIALLY
RISES THEN SETTLES
V LEAD
DOWNTOTO A OVERHEATING
RISE
STEADY AND
O
L THERMAL RUNAWAY
T
A AT THE SECOND
G RISE THE CELLS
E START TO GAS
TIME
62
Ni/Cd CHARGE CURVE
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63
64
65
COPPER
A B
CONSTANTAN
66
THERMOCOUPLE CIRCUIT
WHEN HEAT
CURRENT WILL FLOW
APPLIED TO ONE
JUNCTION
A B
THERMOCOUPLE CIRCUIT 67
A
METAL I
VOLTAGE
HOT JUNCTION
COLD
V1 V2
JUNCTION
METAL II
COPPER
B LEADS CONNECTING
THERMOCOUPLE TO INDICATOR ARE:
EXTENSION LEADS
IF SAME MATERIAL AS THERMOCOUPLES
COMPENSATING LEADS
IF HAVE SAME CHARACTERISTICS
68
ALTERNATIVE THERMOCOUPLE CONNECTIONS
EMF (µv)
NICKEL-CHROMIUM/COPPER-NICKEL
50
IRON/CONSTANTAN
40
30
NICKEL-CHROMIUM/NICKEL-ALUMINIUM
20 87% PLATINUM
/PLATINUM
13% RHODIUM
10 COPPER/CONSTANTAN
90% PLATINUM
/PLATINUM
10% RHODIUM
0
C°
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
69
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIAL GRAPH
ARMOURED CASING
CONNECTING
LEADS
ASBESTOS INNER
INSULATION
CERAMIC
HOT
INSULATION
JUNCTION
SHEATH
70
THERMOCOUPLE PROBE
EGT
AMPLIFIER THERMOCOUPLE
HARNESS
9
8 EGT
7 3
C° X100
6 4
5
EGT EGT
INDICATOR THERMOCOUPLE
PROBE
73
EGT MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION
74
75
+4 +4 +4
FREE
ELECTRONS
+4 +5 +4
ARSENIC
ATOM
5 VALANCE POSITIVE
ELECTRONS ION
+4 +4 +4
76
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
+4 +4 +4
POSITIVE
HOLE
+4 +3 +4
INDIUM
ATOM
3 VALANCE NEGATIVE
ELECTRONS ION
+4 +4 +4
77
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
THIN LAYER OF BORON
PROTECTIVE
GLASS CAP
SEMICONDUCTOR
SUBSTANCE
CONNECTING
PINS
79
PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL
PHOTONS OF LIGHT
FORCE ELECTRONS
TO MOVE INTO THE
CONDUCTION BAND
THIS PRODUCES A
VOLTAGE ACROSS
THE CELL
80
PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL
DETECTOR
CELL LENS PROJECTOR
LAMP
SMOKE DETECTOR
81
SMOKE DETECTOR (PHOTOCELL) OPERATION
OUTPUT TO FIRE
WARNING SYSTEM
SMOKE DETECTOR
82
SMOKE DETECTOR (PHOTOCELL) OPERATION
83
