H O LY T R I N I T Y U N I V E R S T Y

D E PA RT M E N T O F S C R I P T U R A L P H I L O L O G Y
G R A D U AT E R E S E A R C H P R O P O S A L A N D R E P O RT
WRITING

BY
ABINET ASRAT (MHR)

N o v e mb e r , 2 0 1 6
Addis Ababa
E t hi o p i a
CHAPTER ONE: AN OVER VIEW OF THE COURSE
1.1. Research: Definition
 It is a journey for knowledge through hardworking search or
investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of new knowledge.
 It is systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to
generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a
given problem.
 When we say systematic- it implies that the procedures adopted
to undertake an investigation that follows a certain logical
sequence.
 These logical sequences/ steps cannot be taken in a haphazard
way.
 In general scientific research is:
 It is a movement from known to the unknown.
 It is a journey of discovery.
1.2. Purpose of Research
It used;
 To discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
 To find out the truth which is hidden and has not been discovered as yet.
 To know what really is going on in our surrounding and for giving accurate
answers.
 To review or synthesize the existing knowledge
 To explain new phenomenon and generate new knowledge
 To investigate the existing problems and provide solutions through doing
the following tasks (i.e. describing, explaining, predicting, controlling and
comparing phenomena).
 To explore and analyze more general issues
 To construct or create new procedures or systems…etc. (Collis and Hussey,
2003)
1.3. Types of Research
A. Basic and Applied Research
 Basic (Fundamental, pure) research
 It involves developing and testing theories that
are intellectually challenging.
 It may or may not practical
 It is mainly concerned with generalizations,
formulations and development of theories, rules,
principles and regulations of physical and natural
phenomena.
Advantage and Disadvantage Fundamental/Pure Research
Advantage Disadvantage

The approach leads to knowledge It is more costly

or for knowledge sake

It is purely academic & a means of We cannot used for commercial

discovery/ invention/reflection purpose of immediate,

It may have implications for social It has little concern social usefulness
policy of the findings

It is extensive in nature
Applied(action/operational) research
 It is problem-oriented
It is intensive in nature.
 It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society, organization etc. through designing and evaluating policies
and programs.
 The information we generate in applied research can be used.
 To guide policy formulation, program, project or action; and for
the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon and as an input
in basic research.
 To discover new scientific knowledge and to create new technology
that can be used in practice or improve the human condition.
 To test theories and apply to real situations
 To employs methodology that is not as exact as that of basic
research
 To yields finding that can be evaluated in terms of local
applicability but not universal validity.
 Applied research can also be divided in to the
following types:
Action research: It is a kind of research
undertaken by practitioners that provide
information for decision making.
Adaptive research: is the most applied research.
It involves taking applied research result of one
area and adopting it to another specific situation
or environment.
Strategic research: This is an inquiry aimed at
defining strategies and priority areas in which a
specified applied research project should focus.
B. Qualitative and Quantitative Research
1. Qualitative Research
It seeks to describe various aspects about behavior and
other factors studied in the social sciences or humanities.
It concerned with none measurable things (helps us to
understand desires, opinions, behavior, perception,
attitude). (calculating statistical variables is impossible).
It answers questions like why?, how?
It preferred when little is known about the situation/
problem
It is a type of empirical enquiry that entails purposive
sampling for gathering data.
Its goal is to look for meaning.
It is much more time consuming, but provides richness to
the data.
The study design is flexible
 It involves a variety of data collection methods to
achieve its goal. Such as:
In-depth interviews
Participant observation/ Observations without
formal measurement
Group discussions
Content analysis
Artifact studies
Projective techniques
Example: Why most believers use Holy Water
rather than Medicine to prevent internal Daisies?
2. Quantitative Research
It is the systematic and scientific investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their
relationships.
It helps to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and hypothesis pertaining to
natural phenomena.
It often starts with a theory or a general statement
proposed a general relationship between variables.
This approach concentrates on measuring or
counting and involves collecting and analyzing
numerical data and applying statistical tests.
It is used survey and experimental research
methods to test hypothesis with the view to infer
from the particular to the general.
It concerned with countable or measurable things.
 It answers questions like how much? how many?
how often? to what extent?
we do not adequately answer the “why” and
“how” questions.
The study design is rigid
Features of Quantitative and Qualitative Research: (source Gay, 2009:15)
Steps Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Identifying Research Description and explanation Exploratory and understanding orated
problem orated

Reviewing related It has major role, justification It has minor role, justification for the
literature for the research problem research problem

Selecting participant It should be specific, narrow, It should be general and broad & the
/sample measurable and observable participant should be experienced

Collecting data Numerical data, large no of Text or image, small no of individuals

individuals /sites/areas
Analyzing interpreting Statistical analysis, description There is a textual, description analysis
data of treads companions of groups thematic development and the large
There is a companion of results meaning of findings
with perditions and past studies

Reporting and Standard and fixed, objective Flexible and emerging, subjective &
evaluating research and unbiased biased
The differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Deductive , testing of theory Inductive, generation of theory
There is no interaction b/n the researcher & the There is must be interaction b/n the
participant researcher & the participant

There is objectivity/numbers There is subjectivity /words

It employs large sample It employs small sample
It help to develop a body of knowledge in the It help to develop a body of knowledge
form of generalization that unique to the individual being studied

It establishes relationship or causation It describes meaning or discovery

It should be made as value free as possible It should be value bounded
through the use of sound research design &
objective data collection methods

It used structured data collection methods It used unstructured data collection

methods
C. Exploratory and Explanatory
It is a type of research conducted b/c a problem has not been
clearly defined.
 It is a more formal study.
It is a small scale study.
It can be descriptive or comparative.
It helps to decide if it is worth.
It carries a detailed (large scale) investigation
 It often relies on secondary research data.
The ultimate purposes of exploratory research are;
 To gain background information and better understand &
clarify a problem.
 To develop tentative theories generate new idea hypotheses
 To determine the feasibility of conducting further study
 To formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic
inquiry and;
 It helps to:
 determine the best research design
 understand how to measure a variable/s
 determine data collection methods/tools
 save time and resources …etc.
 It involves a variety of data collection methods to achieve its
goal. Such as:
 In-depth interviews
 Focus groups
 Project methods
 Case studies or pilot studies
 The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for
decision making by them, but they can provide significant
insight into a given situation.
Example: a feasibility or preliminary study.
2.Explanatory/Analytical Research
It is a type of research in which aims to
understand the known phenomenon
It used to explain why a relationship, association
or interdependence exists
Explanatory/analytical research involves:
explaining things not just reporting
elaborating and enriching a theory’s explanation
determining which of several explanation is best
providing evidences to support or refute an
explanation or prediction
testing a theory’s prediction or principles
The ultimate goals explanatory researches are;
To elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation
To determine which of several explanations is best
To determine the accuracy of the theory; test a
theory’s perditions or principle.
There are five main types of explanatory research:
such as
 Experimental,
Ex post facto,
Historical,
Philosophical
Meta-analysis research.
Example: How do priestly services affect believers
spiritual life?
D. Conceptual (theoretical) vs Empirical research
1. Conceptual research:
 It is that related to some abstract idea (s) or theory
 It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Example: explanation of cause and effect of in molar
deeds
2. Empirical research:
 It relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory.
 It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.
E. Methods of Critical Edition
In ancient time’s people wrote on stone, papyrus,
wood, manuscripts, etc.
Manuscript texts are transmitted from generation to
generation by copying, which always brings some
textual variations among the manuscripts.
The method used for philological treatment of these
texts is called textual criticism.
The analysis of scribes’ attitude towards their texts
and an understanding of the typology of textual
transmission may have some important implications
for editorial methodology today.
 According to Paolo Marrassini (2008: 8), the term textual criticism
is intimately connected with the German philologist Karl
Lachmann (1783-1851).
 To treat the textual differences among manuscripts, scholars have
used various methods at different times. These are discussed below.
1. Best Text Method
 This method has been in use, according to many scholars, since the
Renaissance. It is called Codex Optimus, which means “the best
manuscript”.
 In this rule one chooses what seems to be the most correct and
clearest manuscript of all, and then prints it out exactly as is, even
without correcting evident mistakes (these mistakes may be
mentioned and corrected, but only in the translation)
(Maraassini ,2008:8).
This method was given value recently in (1977) by
Rene Draguet, the director of the Corpus
Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium of Louvain.
It was also advocated by Joseph Bedier (1864-
1938).
Bedier argues that instead of attempting to restore
the text to its original form, editors should seek the
best witness to the text and use this, with the
minimum amount of retouching.
Bedier applied the method of Codex Optimus to
some editions and corrections.
This method has many intrinsic limitations.

A clear and neat manuscript is not necessarily

archaic; rather, the more the text or manuscript is
truly archaic, the more it will typically be difficult
to read and understand for recent scholars, due to
age, damage and paleography.
If there are two manuscripts, for example, and if
the copied one (the sub-archetype) has corrected
the (apparent) errors of the archetype, the method
of the codex optimus will be disproved.
2. The Method of Majority of Manuscripts
This is also an old method; it is called Codex
Plurimi.
This method was adopted by L. Ricci in 1964 in
his edition of Meṣḥafä Bǝrhan by King Zär’a
Yaqob (Marrassini, 2008: 9).
 This is also not a good method; it is not by a vote
based on the majority of variants that a manuscript
(text) reading should be chosen.
According to Codex Plurimi one of these four
manuscripts should be chosen as the “best”
manuscript.
Thus, this method leads to a wrong conclusion.
 Manuscript readings should not be judged based
on their number but on other criteria, like
paleography, colophon, or events which are
mentioned within the text.
3. Lachmannian Method
The Lachmannian method is also called the
common error method.
Many scholars like Salemans have argued that
Lachmann did not actually produce any theoretical
description of this method.
Salemans argues that the so-called Lachmannian method
was only comprehensively described by Paul Maas in
his essay Textual Criticism (originally published 1927).
 What Maas did was the systematization of Lachmann’s
theories, the method called after him.
 The Lachmannian method is much better than the two
older methods.
 One criterion of the Lachmannian method is the more
difficult reading: if there are two readings, one clear and
the other less clear, or partially distorted and
ungrammatical, the second has to be preferred
(Marrassini p. 9)
For example, if there are two manuscripts, and one
of them is difficult to read, not clear and
grammatically wrong and the other is better, most
probably the former is the archaic one, because
manuscripts of modern times tend to be more
legible and understandable
A second principle of the Lachmannian method is
the most recent manuscripts are not necessarily the
worst.
Thus, most of the time, recent manuscripts (which
have been copied many times) are relatively bad
manuscripts.
Recession and emendation are also features of the
Lachmannian method.
After the collection of the manuscripts, collation
(detailed comparison) is the next step.
There are two types of errors (variations):
polygenetic errors and conjunctive errors.
Polygenetic errors are banal variations of the
manuscripts, that is, errors which can easily occur
multiple times independently (poly-genesis).
Such errors are not considered in building the
stemma.
Then if there are the same readings in different
manuscripts or if some of the manuscripts are not
important for building the family tree, the extra
manuscripts will be eliminated.
 After this action the next step is recession. Here
the manuscripts are grouped into categories/
families, and are arranged in a stemma codicum/
family tree.
After putting the non-eliminated manuscripts into
a family tree though the consideration of
conjunctive errors, there is a further step called
emendation, correction.
This step is the determination and elimination of
mistakes in the reconstructed text and the
establishment of the “true” original or near-
original text.
Method of Textual Analysis
 As stated in the work of Andrews, there are some major

methods/approaches to textual analysis such as; rhetorical criticism,

content analysis, interaction analysis, and performance studies.
Rhetorical Criticism
 Andrews believes that Rhetorical Criticism is one of the major

approaches to textual analysis which carries negative connotations.

 And also he said that, Rhetorical Criticism is a systematic method

for describing, analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating the

persuasive force of messages embedded within texts.
The process serves five important functions
including:
It sheds light on the purposes of a influential
message,
It can aid in understanding historical, social, and
cultural contexts
It can be used as a form of social criticism to
evaluate society
It can contribute to theory building by showing
how theories apply to persuasive discourse
It serves a pedagogical function by teaching
people how persuasion works and what constitutes
effective persuasion.
Content Analysis
The second major method/approach of textual analysis is

content Analysis which is used to identify, enumerate, and

analyze occurrences of specific messages and message
characteristics embedded in texts.
 Vast majority of content analyses employ quantitative

procedures, which involve selecting texts, determining the

units to be coded, developing content categories, training
observers to code units, and analyzing the data.
Interaction Analysis
The third major method/approach of textual analysis
is interaction Analysis.
 It is a complex accomplishment that requires much
knowledge on the part of individual communicators
and the ability to coordinate behavior with others.
Performance Studies
Performance Studies is the process of dialogic
engagement with one’s own and others’ aesthetic
communication through the means of performance.
 There are six steps in generating and reporting
insights in performance studies such as; Selecting,
Playing, Testing and Choosing.
1.4. Definition of Basic Terms
A. Thesis
It is a document submitted in support of
candidature for an academic degree or professional
qualification presenting the author's research and
findings.
The term ‘thesis’ is also used to refer to the
general claim of an essay or similar work.
A thesis, commonly required to obtain a master's
degree, is supposed to test a student's
understanding of his or her field of study.
A dissertation is usually done by a doctorate
student and focuses on original research.
Types of Thesis
Qualitative or Creative Thesis
 This type of thesis is the result of work done by students in a
descriptive, exploratory, analytical, or creative way.
 Departments that encompass the arts and humanities may have graduate
students doing this type of thesis.
Quantitative Thesis
 This type of thesis typically contains data, pieces of information made
or measured by scientific devices and recorded numerically on some
type of scale.
 It may include:
 testing materials under different temperatures and determining their
conductivity.
 comparing strength training regimes for track athletes to find the best
method.
 correlating variables obtained from survey data.
B. Research Report
A research report is a reliable source to recount details
about a conducted research.
It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the
work done to gather specificities of research.
It is the second part/extension/ of the research work next
to conducting research.
Writing a research report is like telling a story. It is a
logical conclusion of doing a given research work.
There are three most important things that we considered
when write an academic research report (i.e. sinner essay,
thesis and dissertation):
 Think about our readers
 Plan before we write
 Make our writing as easy to read as
An academic research report could be:

Informative (i.e. educational),

influential (i.e. important), and

 Critical (i.e. logical).

It needs a predetermined plan

It needs average time of thinking

 CHAPTER TWO: GRADUATE RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
2.1. Definition of Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document that describes the essential
features of a study to be conducted in the future, as well as the
strategy whereby the inquiry may be logically and
successfully accomplished .
It is a structured presentation of what you plan to do in
research and how you plan to do it.
It is a brief and coherent summary of your proposed research.
It sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to
address.
C. Proposal
.
Various terminologies are used to mean a research
proposal depending on why the research is carried
out?
 Research outline
 Synopsis of research
Plan of research
project proposal
Thesis plan
It is a blue print of future activities of a research
project
It deals with ideas of researcher about
what research he/she wants to do,
what objectives and methodology he/she has set,
 How much time and resources are required to complete it,
 How the research finding are to be reported, and so on
It is a work plan, prospectus, outline, and statement of
intent ahead.
2.2. Purpose of Research Proposal
To explain the significance of our project to organizations
who might wish to fund or otherwise support it.
Ideally, it will demonstrate the quality and importance of
our project as well as our ability to conduct the proposed
research.
It gives a brief explanation of the theory guiding the study,
a review of relevant literature pertaining to the theory &
the procedure for the research
2.3. How to write research proposal?
A research proposal is intended to convince others that you
have a worthwhile research project and that you have the
competence and the work plan to complete it.
Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key
elements involved in the research process and include sufficient
information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.
Regardless of your research area and the methodology you
choose, all research proposals must address the following
questions:
 What you plan to accomplish?
 Why you want to do it?
 How you are going to do it?
2.3. Things to be Considered in Research Proposal
Avoid writing an overly-long proposal.
 Avoid proposals that are too broad in scope or too
vague.
 Avoid submitting a proposal for which there is no
interest of our college or university
Be clear on which research question we intend to
answer
 Be clear on the nature of the research area we
anticipate to cover
Make sure that our research idea, question or problem
is very clearly stated, and gap in the existing literature
is known.
 Make sure our research problem research
questions and research objectives are in harmony
and sequentially placed within our proposal.
 Make sure that we have our supervisors
convinced by our chosen area of research.
 Make sure that our proposal is well structured and
follows the stipulated guidelines including minor
formatting issues.
 Ensure that the scope of our project is reasonable
 2.4. Components of Research Proposal

 Title Methodology
 Introduction/ Background
 Research Paradigm
 Problem Statement
 Research Approach
 Research Questions
 Research Design
 Purpose/Aims/ objectives
 Hypothesis  Sample and sampling
 Scope and Limitations technique
 Significance  Tools of Data collection
 Definition of Terms  Methods of Data Analysis
 Review of Literature Plan of Work
 Theoretical & Conceptual Budget
 Framework References
2.4.1. Cover pages: it includes;
Logo of the institution
Name of the institution
Title/topic of the research
Name of the researcher
Name of the adviser/s
Main adviser
Co adviser
Date
Place
2.4.2. Title
 It should be brief, short and descriptive.
Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship,
because such titles clearly indicate the independent and
dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an
educational, and attractive title.
An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also
inclines him/her well towards the proposal.
In selecting the title, the following points should be taken care of:
 Reflect the theme of the research
 Be self-explanatory and Be brief
 Language be simple and definite
 Be specific to a particular domain/field of study
 Avoid confusing meaning
2.4.3. Back ground of the Study
A. Introduction
The main purpose of introduction is to provide the
necessary background or context for your research
problem.
 How to frame the research problem is perhaps the
biggest problem in proposal writing.
 First, try to place your research question in the
context of either a current "hot" area, or an older
area that remains viable.
Secondly, you need to provide a brief but
appropriate historical backdrop.
Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which
your proposed research question occupies the central
stage
Finally, identify ‘key players’ and refer to the most
relevant and representative publications.
In short, try to paint your research question in broad
meetings and at the same time bring out its significance.
Generally, the introduction covers the following points:
State the research problem, which is often referred to as
the purpose of the study
 Provide the context and set the stage for your research
question in such a way as to show its obligation and
importance
Present the rationale of your proposed study and
clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to
be addressed by your research.
Identify the key independent and dependent variables
of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the
phenomenon you want to study
State your hypothesis or theory, if any.
For exploratory or phenomenological research, you
may not have any hypotheses.
Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed
research in order to provide a clear focus.
 Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is
optional.)
B. Statement of the problem: it include;
 This part is a guiding theme of the proposal.
It summarizes the core issue being explored, explained or
understood.
It should Present a concise description of the nature of the
problem to be investigated.
It should identify the gaps
It should tell us the magnitude of the problem
It includes the following points:
 The topic
 The research problem
 A justification of the importance of the problem
 The deficiencies in our existing knowledge about the problem
 The audiences that will benefit from a study of the problem
C. Objectives of the research
 contextual/consistent to the title
 expressed in simple language,
 self-explanatory
 SMART
Two types of objectives
 general/broad/overall
specific
D. Scope and limitations of the study
It include;
 Boundaries of the study
 Aspects and issues addressed
 Shortcomings of the research (i.e. resource and
time constraints).
It should be stated Based on:
 Conceptual frame work of the study
Theological frame work of the study
 Methodology of the study
 Field of study
 Area of study
E. Limitation:
Difficulties in finding the true informants?
Place under study is far away.
Inability to speak, read and understand the local languages
Don’t write: unable to get informant.
Don’t write: time constraints…not professional?
F. Rationale /justification/significance of the research
It should Answer the following Questions
To whom your study is important?
What are the importance of your study?
Practical significance: contribution for outside stakeholders
or for policy making.
Academic significance: Substantive, methodological, and
theoretical contributions for the discipline
It includes:
Position
 Addressing the national context of the problem
 Linking the knowledge gaps
Useful to the society/community
Present state of matters
Affected stakeholders
F. Others
Organization of the Study (if any)
Definition of key Words/Terms
2.4.4. A review of related literature
 It is the process of critical evaluating , re
organizing and synthesizing the wok of others.
 It is an overview of significant
literature around the research topic,
moving from general (background) to
specific (your subject of study).
Highlight what the literature says, and
does not say, on the research topic,
identifying a gap(s) that your research
aims to fill.
It is a critical look at the existing
research that is significant to your
Most researchers prefer a separate section, which
allows a more thorough review of the literature.
 The literature review serves several important
functions:
 ensures that you are not reinventing the wheel.
 gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork
for your research.
 demonstrates your knowledge of the research
problem.
 demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical
and research issues related to your research question
 shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant
literature information.
indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize
the existing literature.
 provides new theoretical insights or develops a
new model as the conceptual framework for your
research.
Convinces your reader that your proposed research
will make a significant and substantial contribution
to the literature.
2.4.5. Methodology
 It is the way of systematically solving the research problem.
 The methodology section tells the reader how the researchers plan to tackle
the research problem.
 It Provides the need of and justification for the methodology selected to
address research questions in study.
it tells your research committee how you plan to tackle your
research problem.
It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary
for the completion of your project.
It should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine
whether methodology is sound.
Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely
accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs
to be more elaborate than what is required for traditional
More importantly, the data collection process in
qualitative research has a far greater impact on the
results as compared to quantitative research.
The method section typically consists of the following
sections:
Research Approach
Explain the various research approaches and their
philosophical foundation
Provide justification for the selected research
approaches by
linking with your research problem
Example: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method
Research Approaches
Research Design
This section describes the study design used in the
study and why it is needed.
 It is under this section that the researcher should
identify, and provide justification for the specific
research design or strategy used in carrying out the
study.
 For quantitative research, you might use
experimental, survey, correlation.
 For qualitative research you might use case study
Ethnography or phenomenology.
Research Design
 Examples of Quantitative research Design
 Survey
Correlation
 Causal comparative
Experimental
Examples of Qualitative research Design
Case study
Ethnography
phenomenology
Descriptive
Population and Sample Size
 For qualitative research we can used Non-
probability sampling methods.
 purposive
 Quota
 Incidental
 Snowball /referal
 For qualitative research we can used probability
sampling methods.
 Simple random
 Systematic random
 Cluster sampling
 Stratified sampling
Developing a Sampling Plan
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
Data Collection
outlines the general plan for collecting data.
describe the specific techniques or procedures you
propose to use to collect your data.
describe the data or information that the researcher
will be collecting & how will he/she collect it.
Data Analysis
 explains how the data will be analyzed once they
are collected.
specify how you intend to analyze the data.
 provide an indication of data analysis strategy in
terms of processing of data, data coding and entry.
explains how the data will be analyzed once they
are collected.
Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation)
 Inferential statistics ( Anova, Corrolation, t-test,
regression)
2.4.6. Time schedule/work plan:
This section needs to include the time needed to complete
the study and breakup of the entire time period. Break-up
of the time period for different steps are mentioned as
follows-
 Preparation of the proposal;
 Preparation of the questionnaire/checklist;
 Data collection;
 Organization of data ;
 Preparation of draft report;
 Review of draft report;
 Finalization of the report based on reviewers’ comments
 The work Plan can be prepared through a Gantt chart
Financial Budget:
Financial budget will include money that will be
needed to conduct and complete the study.
Total amount of money should be broken up into
different heads and sub-heads.
It includes;
Personnel/data collectors
Facilities, equipment and supplies
Travel expenses
Publication costs and other direct costs
References - lists only the literature that you
actually used or cited in your proposal.
Bibliography
 Make a list of the key books, articles and texts
we have referred to in preparing our research
proposal.
We may list other relevant texts not directly drawn
upon when writing our proposal, to show
awareness of the scope of literature in our subject.
Use a standard referencing style for the college or
the university
2.5. Assessment of Research Proposal
Criteria Used for Assessing Short Research Proposals
1. Relevance: It gives answer for the following questions
 Is the research within designated priority areas?
 Does the research address an important problem?
 What new information will the research produce which is
not already known?
 How can the results be operationalized into the practice?
 What are the probable health and/or economic benefits of
the research?
2. Quality of Procedure: Introduction; Aims; Methods;
Analysis; Reporting.
3. Feasibility: Feasibility; Experience of Researchers.
4. Ethics: Is the study lawful?
5. Budget and Cost: Cost and Cost-effectiveness; Cost-
benefit
2.6. Reasons why Research Proposals Fail
 Aims and objectives are unclear or vague.
 There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and
the issues to be addressed.
 The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the
timescale.
 The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in-
depth background research.
 Problem is of insufficient importance.
 Information about the data collection method is insufficiently
detailed.
 Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently
detailed.
 Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic.
 Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out.
 This topic has been done too many times before indicates a lack
in background research.
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
3.1. Definition of Research Report
 A research report is a well-crafted document that
outlines the processes, data, and findings of a
systematic investigation.
 It is an important document that serves as a first-
hand account of the research process, and it is
typically considered an objective and accurate
source of information.
 A report is a more highly structured form of writing
than an essay, and is designed so that it can be read
quickly and accurately.
 It is the second part of research work
 The follow should be like telling a story
3.2. Purpose of Academic research report writing:
It used as means of communication between the researcher
and the readers.
It used as sources of knowledge.
It create awareness for researchers.
It used for selection and promotion of scholars or
Professional Progress
It used to fulfill personal and societal interest.
It used to make rules and regulation, decision.
It used to solve problems.
It used To Evaluate the performance the individuals
It used for quick decision-making
It used for developing the skill of the researcher:
Report writing skill develops the power of designing,
organization coordination, judgment and communication.
3.3. Types Research Report
There are several types of Research Report. Let
us see some of them as follows
Descriptive Report:
In descriptive report, researcher describes the
facts, trends or opinions experienced or gathered
during the research work.
In such reports, data presentation and analysis are
more importantly presented.
In Such reports are more suitable in case of
describing current situations, etc. It is more
popular method of report writing.
Analytical Report:
As name given analytical, such reports are prepared with
analyzing and interpretation of the facts or trends or
situations.
This means analytical report is one step ahead than
descriptive reports.
Such reports follow the scientific investigation and
reporting.
Analytical reports also recommend some measures to
improve the situation with stating different problems on
the situation.
Policy research and managerial research which are
normally funded by any agencies seeking solution of
prevailing problems demand analytical report.
Technical Report:
In the technical report the main emphasis is on:
the methods employed,
assumptions made in the course of the study,
The detailed presentation of the findings including their
limitations and supporting data.
Outline of a Technical report can be as follows:
Summary of the results: It includes
 A brief review of the main findings just in two or three
pages.
 Nature of the study
 Description of the general objectives of study,
 Formulation of the problem in operational terms,
 The working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data
required, etc.
Methods employed: It include
Specific methods used in the study and their
limitations Like:
Sampling (sample design)
 Sample size,
 Sample selection, etc.
Data used : It include
Discussion of data collected their sources,
characteristics and limitations.
 If secondary data are used, their suitability to the
problem at hand is fully assessed
 In case of a survey, the manner in which data
were collected should be fully described.
Analysis of data and presentation of findings:
 The analysis of data and presentation of the
findings of the study with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the
report usually extending over several chapters.
Conclusions
A detailed summary of the findings and the policy
implications drawn from the results be explained.
Bibliography
Bibliography of various sources consulted be
prepared and attached.
D. Popular Report: In such a report emphasis is given on
practical aspects and policy implications. We give below a
general outline of a popular report.
 Objective of the study: A general review of how the
problem arises is presented along with the specific
objectives of the project under study.
 Methods employed: A brief and non-technical
description of the methods and techniques used,
including a short review of the data on which the study is
based, is given in this part of the report.
 Results: This section constitutes the main body of the
report wherein the results of the study are presented in
clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts
of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
 The implications of findings : Emphasis in the report is given on the
findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these
findings.
 Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the
basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the report
 Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used,
forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices
are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.
 It used;
 Proper Control: Whether activities are happening according to plan or
not is expressed through a report. So, controlling activities are
implemented based on the information of a report.
 A managerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the
managers. For planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and
controlling, manager needs help from a report which acts as a source of
information.
3.3. Features of a good research report:
The following are the essential features of a good research report;
 it must be clear and neat/Clarity/
 No need of using long sentences, paragraphs/ it must be Short
 the report must related with facts , tangible evidences/ it must be
real
 No place for figurative of speech, romantic style and using
stories.
 It must relate with the subject of the study
 It must focus only necessary details
 It must absolute inflexible honesty
 It is a serious attempt and not a game
 There are three most important things that we considered when we
write research report
 Think abut our readers
 Make our writing as easy to read as
 Plan before we write research report
 Research report writing could be;
 Informative(educational), influential (important), Critical.
 It needs predetermined plan
 It needs an average time of thinking
3.4. Things to Consider to write an Academic Research Report
 A style of reference should be checked before beginning writing the report.
 A research report should be written as clearly and briefly as possible.
 It should be always written in the past tense, active voice and free from
jargon words.
 The report style and grammar should be checked by a thesis editor.
 It should be written in short and simple sentences.
 In writing research report, points should be stated in positive ways.
 There must be consistence in constricting idea, sentences, using references
of related literatures.
 We can use graphs, charts, diagrams, boxes, pictures to illustrate our
words.
3.5. Majors components of an academic Research Reports
Research is imperative for launching a new product/service
or a new feature.
The details of a research report may change with the purpose
of research but the main components of a report will remain
constant.
An academic research report has seven majors components,
such as;
A. Preliminary/ Introductory section  Description of data collection instruments
 Cover pages
 Description of data organization methods
 Title/topic of the research
 Description of data analysis and
 Acknowledgment
interpretation methods
 Abbreviation/ Acronym (if any)
D. Findings and Discussion
 List of Tables (if any)
E. Conclusions and Recommendation
 List of Figures (if any)
 Abstract F. References (Bibliography)
 Books- published /un published
 Tables of Contents
 Articles-short/long/personal/academic
B. Main Body: it includes;
 Introduction part  Journals - local/international
 Review related literature part G. Appendixes
C. Procedures/Methodology part  Questionnaires
 Description of the research design  Interviews
 Description of research population 
Photo
and sample size
 Description of data sources
1. Cover pages: it includes; B. The second page
A. The first page  Name of the institution
 Logo of the institution  Title/topic of the research

 Title/topic of the research  Name of the researcher

 Name of the institution  Name of the adviser/s

 Name of the researcher C. The third page

 Name of the institution
 Name of the adviser/s
 Title/topic of the research
 Main advise
 Name of the Examiners
 Co advise

 Date

 Place
2. Title of the Research
 Research topic/ title is expected to be an original piece of
empirical work of significance to:
 Behavioral studies ,
 Theological studies,
 Cultural studies,
 Historical actions of the society at large.
 Research topic/title must demonstrate the candidate’s ability
to apply scientific principles and undertake exact
investigation.
 It should be clearly identify the research problems
 It must be clearly answered the following questions:
 What variables are included in the research proposal?
 What is the relationship between these different variables?
 Which is the population to which the results may be
generalized?
 The title should be;
 short and self explanatory
 Informative/educational
 Brief and interesting
 It should include the population of interest,
 the condition/issue being investigated
Sours of Research Title
 Personal experiences
 Scientific literature
 Theories
A. Criteria for selecting problems for research
1) Relevance: The topic you choose should be a importance problem (magnitude,
severity)
2) Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic has been researched or not.
3) Feasibility: Consider the difficulty of the problem and the resources you will require to
carry out the study.
4) Political acceptability: advisable to research a topic that has the interest and support
of the authorities. This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the research and increases
the chance that the results of the study will be implemented.
5) Applicability of possible results and recommendations
6) Urgency of data needed: How urgently are the results needed for making a decision?
Which research should be done first and which can be done late?
7) Ethical acceptability: We should always consider the possibility that we may exact
harm on others while carrying out research
B. Common Drawbacks Research Topic:
 A title that is too brief or too long
 Use of incorrect terminology
 Not specifying the population of interest
Assignment-1
3. Acknowledgment
 It is the act of recognizing someone for his/her helpful works or contributions.
 Why is acknowledgement important?
 Validating others helps to shape cultures within organizations.
 Over time, it builds the backbone of motivated and high performing teams
How do we write an acknowledgement?
 list of all the people we wish to thank for helping or collaborating with us on our
thesis;
 Thanks those who helped us with the actual writing of the thesis or dissertation
itself the most.
4. Others
 Abbreviation/ Acronym (if any)
 List of Tables (if any)
 List of Figures (if any)
5. The Abstract
 It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words.
 It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if
any), the method and the main findings.
 An abstract is a summary that details the main points of the thesis.
 The abstract should be concrete, providing the opportunity for the reader to quickly
preview the contents of the thesis (Troyka 722).
 It is a short summary of an article with a maximum length of 200-250 words.
 It is written as a single paragraph. It should be understandable without requiring
the reader to read something else (Mc Lean, 2001:3).
 It serves as an important window display for our work and provides an
opportunity to impress the reader (Feldman, 2004:2).
 The abstract of the article should include the following elements (Perry et al.,
2002 658)
 It should start with a brief theme sentence to orientate the reader about the
overall issue addressed in the study.
 It should indicate the main aim/purpose of the study.
 It should explain the importance of the study.
 It should briefly describe the methodology used in the study.
 The main findings of the study should be summarized.
3.6. Main Body of the Thesis
A. Introduction of the study
 Introduction of academic or scholarly research has to be informative,
influential, and critical writing.
 It should arouse readers interest in the subject area
 It should provide readers with a brief summary of literature related to the
problem being investigated.
 It should lead up to the statement of the problem.
 It should begin with a broader perspective of the problem and becomes
narrower as the introduction proceeds.
 Clearly relate to the rest of the research work.
 Clearly communicate the central idea or theme.
 Divided into separate sections
 It should answer the following questions:
 Why is the researcher undertaking the project?
 Why is the research needed?
B. Statement of the Problem
 A research problem refers to a situation whereby there exist observable negative
effects of which there is a knowledge gap.
 The researcher needs to be focused, and must single out and clearly state the
problem
 It is an vital part of the research

 It should meet the following requirements;

 It should provide solution to any existing social problems.

 It should not have small target population,
 Target population should be related to a universal population.
 It should be answered the following questions :
 Why does this study need to be conducted?
 What specific issues does this study raise?
 Why this particular study is important ?
 How the study was attempted to answer new, never-before asked questions.
 Does the problem Solvable
A clear statement of the problem;
 Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal (research
objectives, methods, work plan, etc.)
 Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your
own study design can benefit
 Enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the
problem should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results
Information included in the statement of a problem
 A more detailed description of the nature of the research topic (problem)
 Basic description of the research problem
 The discrepancy between what is and what should be
 Its size, distribution, and severity (who is affected, where, since when, etc.)
 An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a convincing
argument that available knowledge is insufficient to answer a certain question and to
update the previous knowledge
 A brief description of any solutions that have been tried in the past, how well they have
worked, and why further research is needed
 A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how this
information will be used to help solve the problem
Check list of problem statement
 It should be stated in terms of the needs of the
beneficiaries
 It describes the inputs from beneficiaries
 It clearly describes the problem to which the research
will respond in a national or regional and local context
 Is supported by statistical or strong qualitative evidence
 Relates to the purpose and goals of proposing
organization
 Is of reasonable dimension
 It does not use jargon
 It is interesting to read
C. Objectives of the study
 The study objective is an active statement about how the study is going to answer the specific
research question.
 The main purposes of the study must be clearly articulated.
 There is a single general objective and several specific objectives which derived from a general
aim.
 It is advisable to limit the number of specific objectives (should not exceed three).
 Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem.
 The Objectives of the study should be ‘SMART’
Why we need a research objective?
 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
 Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the identified
problem
 Organize the study in clearly defined parts
How should we state our objectives?
We have to make sure that our objectives:
 Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence
 Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
 Are realistic considering local conditions
 Meet the purpose of the study
Examples of action verbs are:
 To identify
 To determine
 To compare
 To verify
 To calculate
 To describe
 To find out
 To establish
Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;
 To appreciate
 To understand
 To study
 To believe
D. Research questions ( Hypothesis)
1. Research questions
 The are the basic/leading questions of the study.
 They should render themselves to clear and precise answers
 They emerge from the main research questions or problem statement
 They ask what relationships exist between the different variables in the study,
 They suggest methodology for the study
 They should render themselves to clear and precise answers.
 Thus, List all the research questions and/or hypotheses in the study

2. Research Hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a tentative conjectural statement of relationship between or among
variables a sort of intellectual (informed) guess.
 It represents a declarative statement based on a hunch based on extended
observation by the researcher.
 It must be statistically testable and related to observable and natural phenomenon.
 The relationship being tested must be clear, specific and unambiguous .
 It emerge from the statement of the problem
 It predicts the relationship between variables.
 It serves as the basis for drawing conclusions
 It suggests methodology of the study
 Deciding to whether to use research Hypothesis depends on the factors
 the purpose of the study,
 nature of the research design
 Methodology that we used and
 nature of the readers.

C. Criteria which can to form testable and significant hypothesis;

 The hypothesis/questions must be clearly stated in operational terms.
 The hypothesis/questions must be specific and testable.
 Research problems should be directly related to previous research or theoretical
formulations.
E. Scope of the Study
 It refers to the contextual boundaries or limits of the study.
 It would includes:
 Population / sample size of the study;
 The key concerns and non-concerns of study;
 The extent it tries to resolve the problem.
F. Significance of the Study
 Significance/Justification of the Study can be expressed through following
points:
 State the benefits to be derived from research.
 Who would benefit and how?
 It addresses the "so what" of the study and report.
 It describes or explains the potential value of the study
 It explains how the findings of the study contribute to the social sciences or the
field of education.
 It should identify the audience of the study and how the results will be
beneficial to them.
G. Theoretical Framework
 It is a brief explanation of the theory in related with our research topics.

 It is stating the theory that is guiding the proposed study.

 Here, the researcher is able to inform

 The statement of the problem,

 The purpose of the study,

 The basic questions or hypothesis of the study,

 The instruments, methodology of the study.

 The researcher also explains the major components of the theory and also how
the theory relates to the proposed study.
 Remember that the eventual findings of the research will be discussed in terms
of how they relate to the theory.
H. Limitations of the study
 Limitations of the study can be written with the followings:
 Potential weaknesses of the study that is beyond control of the researcher
and which may have implications or restrictions on study or results of study.
 This may be time, money, nature of the sample, nature of the data, nature of
the instruments used.
 Emphasis should be made on sampling, data, instruments of data collection
related limitations instead of merely making statements about time and
money constraints/ limitations.
 State compensatory measures taken to mitigate effects of noted limitations.

I. Definition of Terms
 It is simply providing definitions for terms/ concepts used in the proposal
that are not widely understood.
 Therefore, we most carefully define each terms, concept/variable that will
be used in the study.
3.7. Literature Review
 It is a process of critically evaluating, re- organizing and synthesizing the work
of others (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005:84).
 It is a summary of related literature with a maximum length of 1000-1500 words
(Perry et al., 2003 658).
 It should be summarized in our own words( i.e. paraphrasing)
A. Literature is reviewed in order to:
 Check if the problem is addressed by previous researches.
 Insight how previous researches have addressed similar issues and what they have
left unanalyzed.
 Identify the theoretical and conceptual framework.
 Refine the research problem.
 Understanding and displaying the relevance and specify the gap of current
literature which our research intends to fill.
 It providing the background for the research problem.
 It is for giving awareness to the reader about the current literature in our field of
research.
 For pave the way for clear formulation of research questions and objectives.
B. How do we organized the reviewed literature?
 Using headings, sub -headings and sub-sub headings.
 Using diagrams.
C. How do we write our reviewed literature ?
 In in a way accessible to an intelligent layperson.
 using simple and familiar terms.
 In a clear & accessible language.
 In a full sentences /a sentence must always contain a verb.
 Paraphrasing & explaining things in our own words.
 providing overview of the contents & building bridges of each text.
 In brief /a sentence not exceeding three lines.
 In the past tense because the research has already been completed.
D. Structure of reviewed Literature
A good review of literature will have the following structure:
 Introduction: A clear and precise introduction of the chapter-2 for literature
review should be presented.
 Theoretical Literature Review: It consists of review of the relevant literature
from the books written by the authors in your area of research.
 It helps the researcher to be focused in looking at the theoretical literature pertained to
the objectives of the study.
 Theoretical literature review may be organized either chronologically or according to
themes.
 Empirical Literature Review
 It consists of the review of observed data on the subject matter.
 it would allow researcher to identify the gap between theory and practice.
 It includes comparing and contrasting of different interpretation on the same subject
by different scholars While doing the empirical literature review, researcher again
should s relate the literature to each objective of the research.
 Research Gaps
 while reviewing the literature the researcher should identify the gaps in it.
 may come up with a new perspective That will become a value addition to existing
literature.
 Conclusion
 The literature review chapter must end with a reflective summary of the key point
raised.
 A good review of literature provides an opportunity to the researcher to show his/her
efforts in reading the material relevant to the thesis topic.
3.8. Procedures/Methodology
 It used to explain how we intend to conduct our research.
 It used to specify what research methods or approaches we will utilize,

 It justify why we have chosen them and what the limitations might be (if any).
 It used to describe our proposed research methodology and methods and justify their
use.
 To do this you need to ask the following questions:

 Why have we decided upon our methodology?

 Why have we decided to use those particular methods?

 Why are other methods not appropriate?

 The methodology section typically has the following sub sections:

 Research Design
 Sampling techniques
 Data sources
 Data collection methods
 Data organization
 Data analysis and interpretation techniques
1. Research Design
 It is the specific plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance.
 There is no single design that can be applied in all the cases.
 A well prepared research design should contain the following characteristics;
 Specifications of its relationship to each research hypothesis.
 Description of the methods of proposed control of confounding variables and threats to
validity.
 Description of the design in statistical terms.
 Identification of the types of interferences that may be made.
A. Research Design in the Quantitative research :
 It is commonly used in research projects aiming on breadth or at generalization.
1) Experimental research design

2) Descriptive research design

3) Co-relational research design

4) Cross sectional Research Design

5) Longitudinal Research Design

B. Research Design In the Qualitative research
 They are usually meant for researches that require depth/ particularization.

 Case study research design

 Causal Research design
 Cohort Research design
 Historical Research design
 Observational Studies
 Grounded Theory Designs
 Action Research design
 Phonological research design
 Ethnographic Research design
 Narrative Research Designs
C. Mixed Research Approach
 The Triangulation design
 The embedded design
 The explanatory /Two Phase Model design
 The exploratory research design
2. Sample and Sampling methods
Sampling
 Sampling is the process of selecting representatives samples from a defined
study population.
 It clearly describes the target populations and contexts in which study was
conducted.
 It describes the sampling methods that we used in detail.
 It provides a demographic and behavioral profile of the respondents who
participated in the study (gender, age, income education, marital status…
etc./
What is Target Population/universe ?
 It is the total collection of elements (members) of the population about which we
wish to make some inferences.
 It is population for which sample is to be drawn and to which the results of the study
could be generalized.
 Here, we have to identify our research target population
What is sample ?
 It is the smallest portion of the population used to estimate the population
limits.
 Is the group of representatives elements of a certain population about
which we look information
 The sample should be made the true representative of the population.
 Criteria of sampling plan
 A good sampling plan should meet the following criteria;
 constructing an accurate, current list of the target population units.
 Method of drawing the sample.
 Number of subjects or population units to be selected.
Steps of discussion of the sample
 First, discuss the population under consideration from where will participants be
selected?
 Second, give the sampling method to be used. Which specific sampling method will
be used to select participants?
 Lastly, list the elements that will be characteristic of the sample, such as sex, age, etc.
Common Methods of Sampling
A. Probability Sampling Method
 Simple Random Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Multiple/ Double Repetitive Sampling
 Multi Stage Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
B. Non-Probability Sampling Method
 Accidental/ Incidental Sampling
 Judgment Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
3. Data Collection Methods:
What is Data?
 It is any piece of collected information or idea
Types of data
 Primary Data: are those Data which are collected afresh and for the first
time. It Usually collected through questionnaires, interviews, observation, etc.
and thus happen to be original in character.
 Secondary Data: are those which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
 Quantitative data: Any data that measure or are associated with a
measurement of the quantity of something.
 Qualitative Data: Any type of data that are not numerical, or do not
represent numerical quantities.
Data collection methods
 It briefly describes how we pre-tested the data collection instruments that we used in our
study.
 It briefly mentions the specific pre- tested methods that used in our study.
 It briefly describes how the data was collected.
In the cases of Quantitative Research
1) Structured observation: There is Careful definition of the units to be observed.
2) Closed-ended questionnaires: are used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
3) Lab experiments: are used to generate statistical data in which used quantitative
research
In the cases of Qualitative Research
4) Structured Observations: There is no Careful definition of the units to be observed
5) Interviews: is a two ways method which permits an exchange of ideas and information.
6) Open-ended questionnaires: Cannot be directly entered to statistical software, etc; it
must be post- coded.
7) Content/documents analysis: The systematic use of published and unpublished
materials for investigation
8) Focus groups decisions: Is a method in which a number of people are brought together
and discuss on certain issue
Therefore, in our research proposal we should identify which methods of data collection we
will be used.
4. Data organization
 What do mean by data organization?
 Stating the sources of data
 Stating the conditions under which data were gathered.
 How do we organize data?
 Raw data will be summarized into:
 Numeric (quantitative) description
 Non-numeric (qualitative) description
 Using figures and tables
 Using graphs
5. Data Analysis
 What do we mean by data analysis ?
 It is the process of bringing raw data into order.
 It is the process of conceptualizing (i.e. reducing the large raw data into workable, ordered bits of
information).
A. In quantitative Research
 Descriptive Analysis
 Inferential Analysis
B. In qualitative Research
 Content Analysis
 Narrative Analysis
 Framework Analysis
 Discourse Analysis
 Ground Theory Analysis
4. Data Interpretation
 What do we mean by data interpretation ?
 It is the process of relating the findings of the study to the research objectives
 Interpretation includes;
 Norm referenced
 Criteria referenced
 Self referenced
3.9. Results/Findings & Discussion
1. Results/Findings
 It is the outcome of research findings.
 It is a final stage in terms of an individual research, it can be the beginning of a
new research
 Results of a study can be presented only in a research report.
 Results are usually not found in the proposal section.
 This section is found near the end of the research report and constitutes the
description of what kind of analyses were performed.
 The data are revealed by the form of statistical analysis that was applied to the
data, and any significance that was observed.
How do we report the research results?
 Using figures & tables:– we have to use 3-5 tables & 1-2 figures in the body of our article.
 Using graphs- in the case of quantitative research
 Using texts– in the case of qualitative research
2. Discussions
 The discussion section of a report presents the author’s interpretation of what the results imply
for theory and/or practice.
 Researchers place their results in a broader context.
 Here, difficulties as well as limitations of the study are noted, and suggestions for future
considerations are included.
 Results and discussion sections should be kept separate, since the discussion section goes
beyond the data.
3.10. Conclusions and Recommendations
 Summarize what you found out, highlighting the most important things.
 State how the findings support or contradict previous research
 Make recommendations for practice or policy based on your findings.
 Make sure you include implications for social work.
 Describe any limitations of the study.
 What future research should be conducted on this issue
 How did this project address the concepts of empowerment, social justice, and diversity.
3.11. References & Appendixes
A. References
 We must give list of related literature and information sources
 We must always cite the most accessible references;
 We must cite primary source rather than review papers
 The reference should be included the authors/ editors, year and title of the
text/book.
B. Appendixes
 Questionnaires,
 Copies of letters used,
 evaluation sheets,
 checklists etc.
CHAPTER THREE: REFERENCES
A reference is the detailed bibliographic description of the item from which you
gained your information. In simple terms, this means the details of the items that
you have used, e.g. author, title, and date of publication.
References are briefly cited within the text, and then given in full at the end of
your work in a reference list.
This guide is intended to provide you with advice on how to use the Harvard
(author-date) system where you supply the author’s name and the date of
publication of the document referred to within the text.
In order to find out more about the document a reader can simply look up the
author’s name in the reference list.
Why References are important in report writing?
References are used to:
 Enable the reader to locate the sources you have used;
 Help support your arguments and provide your work with credibility;
 Show the scope and breadth of your research;
 Acknowledge the source of an argument or idea. Failure to do so could result
in a charge of plagiarism.
Places of reference citation in the research report
 There are really two parts to a reference citation.
 First, there is the way you cite the item in the text when you are discussing it.
 Second, there is the way you list the complete reference in the reference section
in the back of the report.
Reference Citations in the Text research paper
 Cited references appear in the text of your paper and are a way of giving credit to
the source of the information or quote you have used in your paper.
Reference in the References lists in the back of the report.
 There are a wide variety of reference citation formats. Before submitting any
research report you should check to see which type of format is considered
acceptable for that context.
 The References lists all the articles, books, and other sources used in the research
and preparation of the paper and cited with a textual citation in the text.
 These items are entered in alphabetical order according to the authors' last names;
if a source does not have an author, alphabetize according to the first word of the
title, ignoring the articles "a", "an", and "the" if they are the first word in the title.
Books
Book by One Author:
 Jones, T. (1940). My life on the road. New York: Doubleday.
Book by Two Authors:
 Williams, A., & Wilson, J. (1962). New ways with chicken. New York: Harcourt.
Book by Three or More Authors:
 Smith, J., Jones, J., & Williams, S. (1976). Common names. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
One Work by Multiple Authors: write the first author’s, followed etal. & the year
with bracket
 Wasserstein, Zappulla, Rosen, Gerstman, and Rock (1994) or Wasserstein et al.
(1994)
Book With No Given Author or Editor:
 Handbook of Korea (4th Ed.). (1982). Seoul: Korean Overseas Information,
Ministry of Culture & Information.
Two or More Books by the Same Author:
 Oates, J.C. (1990). Because it is bitter, and because it is my heart. New York:
Dutton.
 Oates, J.C. (1993). Foxfire: Confessions of a girl gang. New York: Dutton.
Book by a Corporate (Group) Author:
 President's Commission on Higher Education. (1977). Higher education for
American democracy. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Book with an Editor:
 Bloom, H. (Ed.). (1988). James Joyce's Dubliners. New York: Chelsea House.
 A Translation: Dostoevsky, F. (1964). Crime and punishment (J. Coulson
Trans.). New York: Norton. (Original work published 1866)
An Article or Reading in a Collection of Pieces by Several Authors
(Anthology):
 O'Connor, M.F. (1975). Everything that rises must converge. In J.R. Knott, Jr.
& C.R. Raeske (Eds.), Mirrors: An introduction to literature (2nd ed., pp. 58-
67). San Francisco: Canfield.
Edition of a Book:
 Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R., & Case, C.L. (1989). Microbiology: An introduction
(3rd ed.). Redwood City, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: American Psychiatric
Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th
ed.). Washington, D.C. Author.
A Work in Several Volumes:
 Churchill, W.S. (1957). A history of the English speaking peoples: Vol. 3. The
Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, Mead.
 Encyclopedia or Dictionary: Cockrell, D. (1980). Beatles. In The new Grove
dictionary of music and musicians (6th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 321-322). London:
Macmillan.
Article
Article from a Weekly Magazine:
 Jones, W. (1970, August 14). Todays's kids. Newseek, 76, 10-15.
Article from a Monthly Magazine:
 Howe, I. (1968, September). James Baldwin: At ease in apocalypse. Harper's,
237, 92-100.
Article from a Newspaper:
 Brody, J.E. (1976, October 10). Multiple cancers termed on increase. New York
Times (national ed.). p. A37.
Article from A Scholarly Academic or Professional Journal:
 Barber, B.K. (1994). Cultural, family, and personal contexts of parent-
adolescent conflict. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 375-386.
Government Publication:
 U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1980). Productivity.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Pamphlet or Brochure:
 Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for
reporting and writing about people with disabilities. (4th ed.) [Brochure].
Lawrence, KS: Author.
CHAPTER FOUR : TECHNICAL ELEMENTS
Professional Writing
 First person and sex-stereotyped forms are avoided. Material is presented in an unbiased and
unemotional ( no "feelings" about things), but not necessarily uninteresting, fashion.
 Parallel Construction Tense is kept parallel within and between sentences (as appropriate).
Sentence Structure
 Sentence structure and punctuation are correct. Incomplete and run-on sentences are avoided.
 Spelling and Word Usage Spelling and use of words are appropriate. Words are capitalized and
abbreviated correctly.
 If you are quoting a Table or a Figure or a Photograph in your thesis which is not result of
your original fieldwork; it is must to cite original source of the item.
 If any modifications are made in original figure or table or photograph by you; it must be
indicated: modified from ‘name of author/organization’ or after ‘name of author/
organization’.
 All other quotations, reviewed literature, tables, figures, photographs etc. must be cited in
proper “APA Style”.
 If any Table or Figure or Photograph is the result of your own field work; you must
mention it as a source i.e. Field Survey, 2012 or Field Study, 2012.
 If one fails to follow above rules; there will be several serious consequences in form of
termination, withdrawal of graduation degree, cancellation of Master’s Thesis, etc, based
on the severity of plagiarism.
 General Style. The document is neatly produced and reads well. The format for the document has been
correctly followed.
Formatting
 Submit a 70 and above pages
 Thesis excluding appendices;
 Font Size-12
 Font Type-Times New Roman
 All sections of the paper should be typed on A-4 Size Paper.
 Line Spacing should be 1.5 line space.
 Margins Set (left-1.5 inch, right-1 inch, top-1 inch and bottom – 1 inch).
 Other than cover pages rest must have some page numbers.
 The beginning section must have page numbers in Roman like- I, II,III….
 While main body and the Appendices should have page numbers in decimal
system like-1, 2, 3…..
Plagiarism
 Plagiarism is a high sin in academia; as a researcher you are supposed to follow
some ethical standards, rules and regulations. Guidelines for avoiding any case
of Plagiarism are given below:
 Ensure that your Master’s Thesis is original, has not been published and has not
been submitted for publication or for award of any degree elsewhere.
 If you are quoting more than 500 words from a published work in your Master’s
Thesis you need to submit a copy of permission obtained from the respective
copyright holder.