Syntax

SENTENCE ↔ CLAUSE ↔ PHRASE ↔ WORD ↔ MORPHEME

SENTENCE ↔ CONSTITUENT ↔ WORD

Representing sentence structure

Example:
(1) John laughed
(2) The snake killed the rat and (it) swallowed it
The sentence structure can be represented by labeled bracketing
[ S John laughed ]
Labeling the sentences: two clauses joined together by the coordinator and
[ S1 [ S2 The snake killed the rat ] and [S3 it swallowed it] ]
S=Sentence

Labeling the sentences → phrasal constituents:

[ S1 [ NP John] [VP laughed] ]

[ S1 [ S2 [ NP The snake] [VP killed [ NP the rat ] ] ]

and

[S3 [NP it] [VP swallowed [ NP it]]]]

NP= Noun phrase

VP=Verb phrase
Labeling the sentences → constituents → words :

[ S1 [ NP [ N John]] [VP [V laughed]] ]

[ S1 [ S2 [ NP [ Det The] [ N snake]] [VP [V killed ] [ NP [ Det the ] [ N rat]]]]

[and]

[S3 [NP [N it ]] [VP [V swallowed ] [ NP [N it]]]]]

Det=Determiner

V=Verb

N=Noun
The sentence can also be represented by a tree diagram:

S [Sentence level]

NP VP
[Phrasal level]

N V

John laughed [word level]

 S1 [Sentence level]

S2 coord S3 [clausal level]

NP VP NP VP
[Phrasal level]

Det N V NP N V
NP

Det N N

The snake killed the rat and ( it ) swallowed it

[word ]
In the previous diagram,

the node S1 has three branches expanded as two nodes labeled S2 and S3

coordinated by and.

S2 is expanded in two branches as NP - VP.

S3 is expanded as NP – VP.

VP is expanded in two branches as V- NP.

NP is expanded in two branches as Det- N.

Det, N, and V are terminal nodes attached to words (i.e. lexical items)

Whereas NP, VP, S are non-terminal nodes

The system of expanding one node into other nodes is summed by Phrase

Structure Rules (PS rules)

S → S coord S

S → NP VP

VP → V NP

NP → Det - N

N
In the above diagram,
*The node labeled S1 dominates the nodes S2, coord, and S3 where S2,
coord, and S3 are sister nodes related to the same mother node S1
*S2 dominates the nodes NP and VP, S2 also dominates Det, N, V, NP, Det,
and N but not immediately dominates them.
*S3 dominates the nodes NP and VP, S2 also dominates N, V, NP, and N
but not immediately dominates them.
etc.
Det, N, and V are terminal nodes attached to words (i.e. lexical items)
Whereas NP, VP, S are non-terminal nodes
the (Det) and snake (N) combine to form one constituent (an NP); killed (V)
and the rat (NP) form a constituent. etc.
 Constituency
What is a constituent?

A constituent: is a syntactic unit that combines with other constituents

according to a grammatical rule to yield a larger structure.

Constituents may be:

1. Words

John it

Laughed asteroid

loudly superior

2. Phrases (labeled brackets indicate constituent embedding)

[ NP The snake] [VP killed [ NP the rat ] ]

3. Clauses

[ S1 [ S2 The snake killed the rat ] and [S3 it swallowed it] ]

[ S1 I know [ S2 that the snake killed the rat] ]

4. Sentences

[S John laughed]

[S1 [S2 The snake killed the rat ] and [S3 it swallowed it]]

[S1 I know [S2 that the snake killed the rat]]

 Constituency tests
1.Clefting
A constituent can be focused as a cleft surrounded by it is/was ….. that:
Most of the silk we see in Britain comes from silkworms.
It is from silkworms that most of the silk we see in Britain comes.
Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday
It was on Saturday that Jane gave this book to Bill
Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday
It was to Bill that Jane gave this book on Saturday
Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday
It was this book that Jane gave to Bill on Saturday
2.Pseudo-clefting
A constituent may be focused as a pseudo-cleft using what
Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday
What Jane did was give this book to Bill on Saturday.
What Jane gave to Bill was this book.
This book is what Jane gave to Bill on Saturday.
3.Passivisation
A constituent with a patient role undergoes movement from the object
position
to the subject position
Wild silk moths in countries like India and Japan also produce it.
It is also produced by wild silk moth in countries like India and Japan
People cultivate several species.
Several species are cultivated.
* Several are cultivated species
4.Pronominalisation
Under coordination constituents can often be substituted by a pronoun (‘pro-
form’), such as:
● he/she/it etc. for people
● there for locations
● do so/it/that etc. for some VPs and sentences
a) Sara admires the math teacher and the children admire her too.
b) My brother and I drove for hours and we got scared by the heavy fog.
c) Mohammed was waiting at the campsite and Sara was waiting there too.
d) I love having my work done on time and Cecil does (so) too.
e) I think that Cecil forgot to take the medicine and Rita thinks so too
5.Fronting
Constituents may be fronted as a unit in English:
Tasar is produced in a humid and dense belt of tropical forest in India.
In a humid and dense belt of tropical forest in India, tasar is produced
Lola selected a doughnut filled with banana cream from the bakery
From the bakery, Lola selected a doughnut filled with banana cream.
Phrase structure rules
In generative grammar, recursive rules generate constituents:

S → NP VP “a sentence consists of a NP plus a VP”

VP → V NP “a transitive VP consists of a verb plus a NP ”

NP → Det N “a NP consists of a determiner plus a noun”

Phrase structure grammar is designed to allow constituents to be

embedded inside each other

 John [VPsaw [NPa man with binoculars]]. John [VPsaw [NPa man] [PP with binoculars]]

. S

NP VP

John V NP

saw a man with binoculars

NP VP

John V NP PP

saw a man with binoculars

Clauses and sentences
Introducing the clause

SENTENCE ↔ CLAUSE ↔ PHRASE ↔ WORD ↔ MORPHEME

Each predicate is contained within a constituent clause

Causes allowing embedding like other constituents

a) [The snake killed the rat.] =
SIMPLE SENTENCE

b) [[The snake killed the rat] and [it swallowed it.]] = COMPOUND SENTENCE

c) [I knew [that the snake killed the rat.]] = COMPLEX

SENTENCE

d) [[The snake killed the rat] [before it swallowed it.]] = COMPLEX SENTENCE

e) [The policeman ask me [what I had seen there]] = COMPLEX SENTENCE

f) [John believes [the prisoner to be innocent]] =COMPLEX SENTENCE

g) [I saw [Mary leaving]] =

COMPLEX SENTENCE
Clauses are attached to each other by:
coordination: links two clauses with a conjunction (and, but, or, etc.)
subordination: allow one clause to be nested inside another
Can all clauses stand alone?
a) The snake killed the rat.
b) It swallowed it
c) * That the snake killed the rat
d) * Before it swallowed it
e) * What I had seen there
f) * The prisoner to be innocent
g) * Mary leaving
Finite and non-finite verbs

In English, there is a strong correlation between clauses which can occur on their

own as main clauses and the finiteness of the verb…

Finite verbs include the grammatical categories of tense, aspect and/or

agreement…

a) The snake killed the rat

b) It swallowed it.

c) John believes the prisoner to be innocent

Non-finite verbs occur as infinitives or as participles with or without finite

auxiliary verbs:

a) [John believes [the prisoner to be innocent]]

FINITE NON-FINITE

b) [I saw [Mary leaving]]

FINITE NON-FINITE

c) [Sally is the one [walking along the beach] ]

FINITE NON-FINITE

d) [ Sally has met the man [ who finished this book ] ]

FINITE NON-FINITE
Non-finite verbs cannot usually occur as main verbs in main clauses:

a) * The prisoner to be innocent

b) * Mary leaving

Are the following clauses finite?

a) * That the snake killed the rat

b) * Before it swallowed it

c) * What I had seen there

Compound sentences: clause coordination
Two main clauses may join together to form a compound sentence:

a) [George cheated at Harvard] and [Jane cheated at Yale.]

b) [John studied very hard last year] but [ he failed his test.]

c) [Paul will go to the cinema tonight], or [he will stay at home to read a book.]

coordination: [S1 [S2] coord [S3]]

S1

S2 coord S3
 Complex sentences: Subordination
Non-finite subordination

Embedding a subordinate clause inside the main clause form a complex

sentence.

The subordinate clause may be non-finite embedded inside the finite clause. The

non-finite clause may appear as a complement:

a) [S1John believes [S2 the prisoner to be innocent]]

b) [S1I saw [S2 Mary leaving]]

 S1

NP VP

N V S

I saw Mary leaving

subordination: [S1 [S2 ]]

The non-finite clause may also appear as an adjunct:
a) [While carrying the baby], [I fell down]
b) [The cat [laying on the doorstep] is asleep]
Finite subordination

Subordinate clause may also be finite, either:

● introduced by a complementiser (COMP);

● as a relative clause

Complementizers and finite subordination

The embedded clause may be headed by COMP (that, whether, if, for, before,because, since, etc.)

The embedded clause headed by COMP is labeled CP

a) [S1 I know [CPthat [S2the snake killed the rat.]]

b) [S1 He asked [CPwhether [S2he might go home with her.]]

c) [S1 He asked [CPif [S2he can accompany his mother.]]

d) [S1 The coroner asked [CPwhy [S2the witness had measured the distance]]

e) [S1 The policeman asked me [CPwhat [S2I have seen there]]

 S

NP VP

N V
Ś

COMP S

I know

That

the snake killed the rat

subordination: [S1 [Ś ]]

Ś→ COMP S
Relative clauses
* Relative clauses modify nouns but realized by a clause (Ś).

* Relative clauses may relativise on the subject, object, indirect object, and
may be adverbial, leaving a gap in the clause.

a) [NP The man [Śwho [S ___ met Mary]]] looks scary

b) [NP The man [Śwho [S Mary met___]]] looks scary

c) [NP The man [Śthat [S Mary met___]]] looks scary

d) [NP The man [Śwho(m) [SI sent the book to ___]]] looks scary

e) [NP The man [Ś to whom [SI sent the book ___]]] looks scary

e) [NP The place [Śwhere [Swe decided to meet___]]] was inconvenient

Restrictive vs. non-restrictive relative clauses

Relative clauses may also vary in their scoop interpretation:

My sister, who lives in Britain, sent me a gift.

= entails 1 sister (non-respective)

My sister who lives in Britain sent me a gift.

= entails more than one sister

Deletion in Relative Clauses

Relative pronoun functioning as an object of a verb or a preposition can be deleted

whereas relative pronoun functioning as a subject cannot be deleted:

a) The man Ø Mary met looks scary

b) The man Ø I sent the book to looks scary

c) * The man to Ø I sent the book looks scary

d) * The man Ø met Mary looks scary

Phrases
● Words combine together to form phrases according to rules called phrase

structure rules.
● The set of phrase structure rules for a language form a generative grammar.
● Different phrase structure rules generate phrases of different categorical

structure: noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP), prepositional phrases (PP),

adjective phrases (AP), adverbial phrases (AdvP), etc.

Noun Phrase [ NP ]
1. Types of nouns
1.Proper Noun: The noun is the name of a particular person or place. That is used to specify a particular
person, place, animal, thing, etc. A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.
Mostafa , Amman , The Nile , Khawarizi , etc.

2. Common Noun: This is a noun that refers to a generic item, group, or place. This means that, unlike
proper nouns, they are not used to identify specific people, places, or objects. Common nouns are not
capitalized unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.
Girl , school , student , country , etc .

3. Singular Noun: It is a noun which refers to a single person, place, animal, or thing
Desk , boy , man . river, house , etc.

4 Plural Noun: This noun refers to more than one person, place, animal, or thing.
Plural nouns are represented by -ies, -s, -es, or –ves and other irregular nouns
Three cats, 2 boys , 3 boxes , 2 brushes , 10 sheep , 3 teeth , 5 people , etc
5. Concrete Noun: The noun that is perceived by sense
Whale, Soap, London, House, Shower, Lemon, etc.

6. Collective Noun: The noun refers to groups of people or things

A fleet (collection of ships or vessels), An army(collection of soldiers), A crowd( a collection
of people), etc.

7.Compound Noun: Such Noun is made up of two or more words.

Dry-cleaning, toothpaste, ice cream, etc.

8. Abstract Noun: An abstract noun that refers to ideas, qualities, thoughts, feelings, and
conditions, and means things that cannot be touched or seen.
Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom, bravery,
Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred, childhood, boyhood, etc.

9. Countable Noun: Noun which can be counted.

Book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse, etc.

10.Uncountable Noun: Noun which is not in mass and is uncounted.

2.Structure of noun phrases

Noun phrases are the phrases that contain a noun as the key word. In other words,
every noun phrase (NP) has a compulsory element – a noun. A noun phrase must
contain a noun, which is usually called the ‘head noun’.

[NP [N I ]] love [NP [N chocolate]]

[NPThe [N tramp]] read [NP the [N diary]]

[NP[Det Both][N girls]] enjoy [NP [AP classical] [N music]]

[NP [Det The] [N diary] [S which the tramp was reading]] was amusing

[NP [Det Two] [Nboys] [PP with red hair]] entered the room
● A noun phrase contains a head noun that is non-omissible.
● The head noun may be preceded by a determiner specifier and an adjective
that modifies the noun (premodifier):
● The head noun may be followed by a postmodifier

NP

Specifier pre-modifier N
post-modifier

Determiner

Pre centre post

A determiner in English grammar is a word placed in front of a noun to specify quantity or
to clarify what the noun refers to. For example: the lake, an apple, my pencil, some paper,
five trees, each person, that book etc.

Determiners can be classified as :

(1) Article (a/an, the)

(2) A Demonstrative determiner (this, that, these, those)

(3) A Possessive determiner (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)

(4) A Quantifier (many, much, more, most, some, all, every, few, little )

(5) Numbers (cardinal and ordinal numbers double/twice/three times...)

(6) Interrogative determiners (whose, what, which)

Post modifiers

Postmodifiers in a noun phrase occur after the noun, and are most
commonly prepositional phrases introduced by of:
a piece of cheese the rotation of the earth
the top of the hill a biography of Mozart
a view of the sea the Museum of Mankind
The woman that we saw yesterday is Ahmad’s aunt . [ that clause ]
The restaurant where we met was destroyed . [ relative clause ]
Function of nouns and noun phrases
Noun phrases including nouns and pronouns perform eleven main grammatical
functions within sentences in the English language. The eleven functions of nouns and
noun phrases are:

○ Noun phrase head

○ Subject
○ Subject complement
○ Direct object
○ Object complement
○ Indirect object
○ Prepositional complement
○ Noun phrase modifier
○ Determinative
○ Appositive
○ Adjunct adverbial
Noun Phrase Head

The first grammatical function that nouns perform is the noun phrase head. A noun phrase
consists of a noun including a pronoun plus any determiners, modifiers, and complements. For
example, the following italicized nouns function as noun phrase heads:

○ the big blue ball

○ someone to love
○ an old woman who lived in a shoe
Subjects
The second grammatical function that noun
phrases perform is the subject. A subject is a
word, phrase, or clause that performs the action
of or acts upon the verb. For example, the
following italicized noun phrases function
as subjects:

● The baby cried.

● Dogs and cats make excellent pets.
● I will have extensively studied English.
Subject Complements

The third grammatical function that noun phrases perform is the subject complement.
A subject complement is a word, phrase, or clause that follows a copular, or linking,
verb and describes the subject of a clause. The terms predicate nominative and
predicate noun are also used for noun phrases that function as subject complements.
For example, the following italicized noun phrases function as predicate nominatives:

○ My grandfather is a farmer.
○ Our favorite pets are dogs with short hair.
○ The woman whom you are looking for is she.
○ Become / feel / taste /appear / seem /
○ https://www.englishreservoir.com/verbs-in-english/copular-verbs/

She becomes a good doctor .

I am studying English .
Direct Objects
The fourth grammatical function that
noun phrases perform is the direct object.
A direct object is a word, phrase, or clause that
follows a transitive verb
and answers the question “who?” or “what?”
receives the action of the verb.
For example, the following italicized
noun phrases function as direct objects:
○ The children ate all the cookies.
○ My professor recommended an extremely
useful book.
○ The woman has always hated mice and rats.
I watched a movie .

I slept.

I saw him .
Object Complements

The fifth grammatical function that noun phrases perform

is the object complement. Object complements are defined
as nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, adjectives,
and adjective phrases that directly follow and modify
the direct object.
For example, the following italicized noun phrases function
as object complements:
○ We consider our puppy our baby.
○ My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart.
○ America recently elected Barack Obama president.
Indirect Objects

The sixth grammatical function that noun phrases perform is the indirect
object .
An indirect object is word, phrase, or clause that indicates to or for whom
or what the action of a ditransitive verb is performed. For example, the
following italicized noun phrases function as indirect objects:
○ My husband bought me flowers.
○ The child drew his mother a picture.
○ The salesman sold the company suffering from the scandal new computers.
Prepositional Complements / object of preposition

The seventh grammatical function that noun phrases perform is the

prepositional complement. A prepositional complement is a word,
phrase, or clause that directly follows a preposition and completes the
meaning of the prepositional phrase. For example, the following
italicized noun phrases function as prepositional complements:
○ My husband bought flowers for me.
○ The students studied during their spring break.
○ Because of the lengthy delay, we missed our flight.
Noun Phrase Modifiers

The eighth grammatical function that noun phrases perform is the

noun phrase modifier. A noun phrase modifier is a word, phrase,
or clause that modifies or describes a noun including a pronoun
or a noun phrase. For example, the following italicized noun
phrases function as noun phrase modifiers:

○ The child actor won an award.

○ The carpenter fixed the broken table leg.
○ We reserved twenty hotel rooms.
Determinatives
The ninth grammatical function that noun phrases can perform is the
determinative. Determinatives provide information such as
familiarity, location, quantity, and number. Possessive nouns —
which are a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase and the possessive clitic
(apostrophe s or s apostrophe) — function as determinatives.
Possessive nouns indicate possession of or some other relationship to
another noun or noun phrase. For example, the following italicized
noun phrases function as possessive modifiers:

○ My brother’s apartment is small.

○ I found everyone’s reports informative.
○ The man who stole my purse’s car has been towed.
Appositives

The tenth grammatical function that noun phrases perform is the

appositive. An appositive is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies or
explains another noun phrase. For example, the following italicized noun
phrases function as appositives:

○ My grandfather, the farme, bought more farmland.

○ The teacher, my uncle, assigns a lot of homework.
○ The musician Stevie Nicks is a singer in the band Fleetwood Mac.
○ Our teacher , Sawsan , gave us an exercise about the functions of nouns .
Adjunct Adverbials

The eleventh grammatical function that noun phrases perform is the adjunct
adverbial. An adjunct adverbial is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies an entire
clause by providing additional information about time, place, manner, condition,
purpose, reason, result, and concession. For example, the following italicized
noun phrases function as adjunct adverbials:

○ Today the children woke up early.

○ Yesterday the children slept in late.
○ We decided to go home.
Specifies

Pre Center Post Pre modifier Head Noun Post

determiner determiner Determiner modifier

Half / both /
all / double
Pronouns
The word pronoun means “on behalf of a noun,” meaning that it stands in
for a noun (the antecedent) to avoid repetitive nouns in writing.
What are the types of pronouns

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns substitute a person's name. They can also substitute any third-
person noun in a sentence.

Subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) function as the subject of a
sentence.
Object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) replace the name of the object
of a sentence.

Possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, theirs) show that a noun
owns or possesses something. They replace a noun that typically has an
apostrophe and "S" after it (or just an apostrophe for plural nouns). But possessive
pronouns do not need the apostrophe + "S" to show possession.

Possessive determiners (my, your, her, his, its, our, their) come before a noun to
modify it, just like an adjective.
Indefinite Pronouns
We use indefinite pronouns when a noun isn’t specific. Singular indefinite pronouns (anybody, anyone,
anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody,
someone, something) function as singular pronouns with singular verbs.

Everything looks just right.

No one is helping.
Each brings a gift.

Plural indefinite pronouns (both, few, many, several) function as plural nouns.

Both look just right.

Many are helping.
Few bring a gift.

Some indefinite pronouns (all, any, more, most, none, some, such) function as both singular and plural.

Most looks just right.

None are helping.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. They add more
information to a sentence.

Definite relative pronouns (who, whom, which, whose, that) refer to a specific noun,
and are the first word in a noun clause.

Find the man who stole the money.

The watch, which turned out to be a fake, cost a lot of money.
The dog that lives next door barks all night long.

Indefinite relative pronouns, also known as compound relative pronouns, are relative
pronouns with -ever at the end (whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever). They
describe general or unknown nouns.

Thank whoever sent a gift.

Whichever you choose will be great.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns (who, whom, which, what, whose, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever)
have the same form as relative pronouns, but they ask a question.

Like all pronouns, interrogative pronouns replace a noun. If they come before a noun, they’re
interrogative determiners.

Who is absent?
Which is cheaper?

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns replace the object of a sentence when it refers to the same person or item in the
subject. Singular reflexive pronouns end in -self ((myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themself,
theirself).

You should buy yourself a smoothie.

Nadine taught herself Spanish
Demonstrative pronouns indicate specific nouns. They can be singular (this, that,
such, none, neither).

This is my favorite song.

That doesn't matter.
Neither fits me.

Demonstrative pronouns can also be plural (these, those).

These are delicious.

Those are too expensive.
Reciprocal pronouns show an action that two or more nouns are
performing together. There are only two reciprocal pronouns (each other, one
another):

My parents love each other.

Respect one another in this classroom.
Pronouns function in the sentence

Because pronoun is a subcategory of noun, phrases in which a

pronoun functions as the phrase head are considered noun
phrases. In other words, pronoun phrase is a subcategory of
noun phrase. However, most grammars refer to phrases with
pronouns functioning as the phrase head as noun phrases rather
than pronoun phrases.
 Noun Phrase Head

A noun phrase consists of a noun including a

pronoun plus any determiners, modifiers, and
complements. For example, the following
italicized pronouns function as noun phrase
heads:

○ me (personal pronoun)
○ that (demonstrative pronoun)
○ what (interrogative pronoun)
○ someone special (indefinite pronoun)
○ anybody to call (indefinite pronoun)
 Subjects

A subject is a word, phrase, or clause that

performs the action of or acts upon the
verb. For example, the following italicized
pronouns function as subjects:

○ Did you call? (personal pronoun)

○ These stink terribly! (demonstrative pronoun)
○ Who stole the cookie from the cookie jar? (interrogative
pronoun)
○ No one should work this weekend. (indefinite pronoun)
○ Another bit the dust. (indefinite pronoun)
 Subject Complements

A subject complement is a word, phrase,

or clause that follows a copular, or
linking, verb and describes the subject of
a clause. The terms predicate nominative
and predicate noun are also used for
pronouns that function as subject
complements. For example, the following
italicized pronouns function as predicate
nominatives:

○ This is she. (personal pronoun)

○ This is her. (personal pronoun)
○ The cookies for the sale are those. (demonstrative pronoun)
 Direct Objects

The fourth grammatical function that pronouns

perform is the direct object. A direct object is a
word, phrase, or clause that follows a transitive
verb and answers the question “who?” or
“what?” receives the action of the verb. For
example, the following italicized pronouns
function as direct objects:

○ A dog bit you? (personal pronoun)

○ The mailman delivered this. (demonstrative pronoun)
○ My brother brought which? (interrogative pronoun)
○ Raymond loves everybody. (indefinite pronoun)
○ Your sister-in-law has borrowed several. (indefinite pronoun)
 Object Complements

Object complements are defined as nouns,

pronouns, noun phrases, adjectives, and
adjective phrases that directly follow and
modify the direct object. For example, the
following italicized pronouns function as
object complements:

○ You painted the bathroom this?! (demonstrative pronoun)

○ He considered the movie what? (interrogative pronoun)
○ The neighbors stained their fence which? (interrogative
pronoun)
○ The committee may elect me either. (indefinite pronoun)
 Indirect Objects

An indirect object is word, phrase, or clause

that indicates to or for whom or what the
action of a ditransitive verb is performed.
For example, the following italicized
pronouns function as indirect objects:

○ My husband bought me flowers. (personal pronoun)

○ A stranger sent her a box of chocolates. (personal pronoun)
○ You should give that some thought. (demonstrative pronoun)
○ She wants to give whom that ugly armchair? (interrogative
pronoun)
○ The committee has given both some real consideration.
(indefinite pronoun)
 Prepositional Complements

A prepositional complement is a word,

phrase, or clause that directly follows a
preposition and completes the meaning of
the prepositional phrase. For example, the
following italicized pronouns function as
prepositional complements:

○ My husband bought flowers for me. (personal pronoun)

○ Send a free sample to them. (personal pronoun)
○ The library really frowns upon that. (demonstrative pronoun)
○ You threw a tantrum for what? (interrogative pronoun)
○ I received an anonymous letter from somebody. (indefinite
 Appositives

An appositive is a word, phrase, or clause

that modifies or explains another noun
phrase. For example, the following
italicized pronouns function as
appositives:

○ That man, him, stole my purse. (personal pronoun)

○ The winner is a woman, her. (personal pronoun)
○ A dog, that, has been digging in my garden. (demonstrative
pronoun)
○ That fork and that spoon both are dirty. (indefinite pronoun)
Verbs and verb phrase
A verb is a word that we use to refer to actions (what things do) and states
of being (how things are).

We have 11 different types of verbs.

1. Action verbs
Action verbs, as their name says, are used to refer to actions. These can refer to
physical actions that are performed with bodies or objects, such as jump, hit, or
sing, or mental actions that we use our brains to perform, such as think, consider,
or memorize. Most verbs you will find are action verbs.

List of action verbs

● run
● swim
● help
● ignore
2. Stative verbs
Unlike action verbs, stative verbs refer to conditions or states of being. Generally
speaking, we use stative verbs to describe things like qualities, states of
existence, opinions, beliefs, and emotions. When used in a sentence, stative verbs
do not refer to actions.

List of stative verbs

● love
● want
● own
● have
3. Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a sentence.
The direct object is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that is having something
done to it by the subject of the sentence. Both action and stative verbs can have
direct objects, which means they can both be used as transitive verbs.

Examples of transitive verbs in a sentence

The following sentences all contain examples of transitive verbs. As you read each
one, consider what the direct object of the sentence is.
● Leonardo ate a delicious pepperoni pizza.
● The wealthy man bought three paintings.
● She really hates broccoli
4. Intransitive verbs
The opposite of a transitive verb is an intransitive verb. A verb is an intransitive
verb if it is not used with a direct object. Remember, only nouns, pronouns, and
noun phrases can be direct objects. Prepositional phrases, adjectives, and
adverbs cannot be used as direct objects. Once again, both action and stative
verbs can be used as intransitive verbs.

Examples intransitive verbs in a sentence

Each of these sentences uses intransitive verbs. Look carefully and you will see
that none of these sentences have direct objects.
● Airplanes fly.
● The children slept while the adults worked.
● The terrified monkeys hid in the trees after they saw the gigantic hungry
snake.
5. Linking verbs
Linking verbs are a special type of stative verb whose name gives a big clue as to what they do. Linking
verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement. A subject complement describes or identifies
the subject of the sentence or clause. Linking verbs can function as intransitive verbs, which do not take
direct objects.

List of words used as linking verbs

● be
● Become
● seem
● appear
● grow

Examples of linking verbs in a sentence

In each of the following sentences, linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement.

● Mike is a great dancer.

● That gold watch looks expensive.
● Suddenly, the mall got really crowded
6. Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs)
Helping verbs, also called auxiliary verbs, are helpful verbs that work with other
verbs to change the meaning of a sentence. A helping verb combines with a main
verb in order to accomplish different goals. These include changing the tense of
the verb or altering the mood of a sentence.

List of words used as helping verbs

● be
● have
● do
● can
● will
7. Modal verbs
Modal verbs are a subgroup of helping verbs that are used to give a sentence a
specific mood. Each modal verb is used differently, and they can express concepts
such as ability, necessity, possibility, or permission.

List of verbs used as modal verbs

● can
● may
● might
● must
8. Regular verbs
A verb is considered a regular verb if its past tense form and past participle ends
in -ed, -d, or the verb is a -t variant verb. For example, the verb look is a regular
verb because both its past tense form and past participle is looked. Sometimes,
regular verbs may slightly change spelling. For example, the past tense and past
participle of cry is cried.

List of regular verbs

● jump becomes jumped
● slip becomes slipped
9. Irregular verbs
An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense and past participle form doesn’t end
in -ed, -d, and doesn’t use the –t variant. Often, the spelling of these verbs
changes dramatically or may not even change at all.

List of irregular verbs

● be becomes am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been
● eat becomes ate, eaten
10. Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with prepositions and/or adverbs that
have a different meaning from the individual words used to form them. For
example, the verb shut means “to close,” and the adverb down means “not up” or
“in a descending direction.” However, the phrasal verb shut down means to stop
the operation of something.

List of phrasal verbs

● ask for
● put up with
● talk down to
11. Infinitives
Our last type of verb isn’t actually a verb at all—sorry about that! However,
infinitives look a lot like verbs because they are derived from them. An infinitive of
a verb is identical to the base form of the verb. For example, the infinitive form of
the verb open is open. Typically, we use infinitives with the word to in order to form
infinitive phrases. Infinitive phrases can be used for a variety of reasons, such as
to act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
English verbs and verb phrases perform nine primary grammatical functions
within sentences in the English language. Traditional grammars define verbs as
words that name actions and states. Verb phrases consist of a verb plus any
modifiers, complements, particles, and auxiliaries. The nine prototypical
functions of English verbs and verbs phrases are:

○ Verb phrase head

○ Predicate
○ Noun phrase modifier
○ Noun phrase complement
○ Adjective phrase complement
○ Verb phrase complement
○ Adjunct adverbial
○ Disjunct adverbial
○ Conjunct adverbial
Verbs as Verb Phrase Heads

The first grammatical function that verbs perform is the verb phrase
head. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers,
complements, particles, and auxiliaries including modal verbs,
operators, have, and be. For example, the following italicized verbs
function as verb phrase heads:

○ read
○ returned
○ have borrowed
○ will be painted
○ ran quickly
○ rather quietly snorted
○ want to eat some strawberries
○ would rather need to shower
○ listen to the music
○ shall have been worried about the weather
Verbs Phrases as Predicates

The second grammatical function that verbs and verb phrases

perform is the predicate of a clause. A clause is defined as a
grammatical structure that consists of a subject and a predicate.
For example, the following italicized verbs and verb phrases
function as predicates:

○ My puppy drinks milk.

○ I am studying linguistics.
○ The vase was broken by the cat.
○ We have eaten all the pie.
○ The students will finish their homework.
○ She will have earned her degree in May.
○ Those children have been being bad.
Verb Phrases as Noun Phrase Modifiers

The third grammatical function that verbs and verb phrases perform is
the noun phrase modifier. Noun phrase modifiers are defined as words
and phrases that describe a noun or noun phrase. For example, the
following italicized verbs and verb phrases function as noun phrase
modifiers:

○ The woman reading the book just yelled at me.

○ My dog is the puppy chewing on the rawhide.
○ I saw the man sleeping on the bus.
○ Do you have a book to read in the car?
○ The food to eat is on the table.
○ The most recent news reported by the anchor made me sad.
Verb Phrases as Noun Phrase Complements

The fourth grammatical function that verbs and verb phrases perform is
the noun phrase complement. Noun phrase complements are defined
as words and phrases that words, phrases, and clauses that complete
the meaning of a noun or noun phrase. For example, the following
italicized verbs and verb phrases function as noun phrase
complements:

○ She has problems finding her shoes.

○ His trouble finishing his degree began years ago.
○ I get anxiety meeting new people.
○ We had troubles buying fresh chives.
○ Her anxiety going out in public makes life difficult.
○ We have a problem finishing assignments on time
Verb Phrases as Verb Phrase Complements

The sixth grammatical function that verbs and verb phrases in

the form of infinitives perform is the verb phrase complement.
Verb phrase complements are defined as phrases that complete
the meaning of a verb phrase. Verb phrases in the form of
infinitives and base forms can function as verb phrase
complements. The infinitive or base form following some
catenative verbs functions as a verb phrase complement. For
example, the following italicized verbs and verb phrases function
as verb phrase complements:

○ The students have to pass the test. (infinitive)

○ She intends to attend the ceremony. (infinitive)
○ My neighbors happen to own a hot air balloon. (infinitive)
○ Grandpa can come start the fire for the barbecue. (base form)
○ He helps manages the student workers. (base form)
Verb Phrases as Adjunct Adverbials

The seventh grammatical function that verbs and verb phrases in the
form of infinitives and present participles perform is the adjunct
adverbial. Adjunct adverbials are words, phrases, and clauses that
modify an entire clause by providing additional information about time,
place, manner, condition, purpose, reason, result, and concession. Verb
phrases in the form of infinitives and present participles can function as
adjunct adverbials. For example, the following italicized verbs and verb
phrases function as adjunct adverbials:

○ Dancing, Margie broke her ankle. (present participle)

○ Sam found a lost wallet walking to the store. (present participle)
○ Running on the ice, the child slipped and fell. (present participle)
○ To bake cookies, begin with butter, sugar, and flour. (infinitive)
○ She opened the window to let in some fresh air. (infinitive)
○ Fill your tank with gas to keep your engine running better. (infinitive)
Verb Phrases as Disjunct Adverbials

The eighth grammatical function that verbs and verb

phrases in the form of infinitives is the disjunct adverbial.
Disjunct adverbials are words and phrases that provide
additional information to frame an entire clause, which
denotes the attitude of the speaker toward or judgment of
the proposition such as truthfulness of manner of speaking.
Verb phrases in the form of infinitives can function as
disjunct adverbials. For example, the following italicized
verbs and verb phrases function as disjunct adverbials:

○ To be fair, your cooking is terrible.

○ To be frank, the woman was at fault.
○ To be clear, determiners are not adjectives.
○ To be candid, the mushroom soup was disgusting.
Verb Phrases as Conjunct Adverbials

The ninth grammatical function that verbs and verb phrases in the form
of infinitives is the conjunct adverbial. Conjunct adverbials are words
and phrases that express textual relationships and serve to link clauses.
Verb phrases in the form of infinitives can function as conjunct
adverbials. For example, the following italicized verbs and verb phrases
function as conjunct adverbials:

○ To begin, peel the potatoes.

○ To start, read the instructions.
○ To begin with, the painters moved the furniture out.
○ To sum up, postpositions and prepositions are both adpositions
Sentence

Subject + predicate
Np VP
They have been working here for two years.
[Who has been working with us for 3 years] was caught by the police .
The woman was in the garden .
The woman lives with her husband
The women live with their husbands .
Su. ---------- NP - S~
1.pronoun replacing : he was caught by the police.
2.Subject auxiliary inversion : was the woman in the garden ?
3.NP agree with VP
Predicate : VP
[ the woman [ [is eating ] [her breakfast ] [now ] [ with her family ] .

1. Sentence adjunct: [ extra constituent ]

A sentence may contain besides Su and Pred a peripheral in its structure

There are two peripheral types:

a. words or phrases that shows the speaker’s attitude as :

Unfortunately / in my view /in fact /sure , etc

In my view , people must stop smoking.

b. items which connect sentences as , yet , moreover , on one hand , next , nevertheless ,
etc.

He wanted to start a new job , yet he needs to do some courses .

This is the place where we used to meet.

Predicate complement ( Pc ) ( Subject complement )
PC refer to [ complete information related to the subject ] some properties to the subject

He [ seemed a good student ] . [ NP]

He looked nice in his grey suit. [ Adj P ]

She is a doctor . [ NP ]

He was in a good mood. [ PP ]

[ copula / linking verbs ] [ NP / Adj P / PP ]

[GF ] Pc

She eats an apple . she is a good student

An apple is eaten by her A good student is is by she

They eat an apple [not Pc ] they are good students [Pc ]

She appears a kind teacher .

They appear kind teachers . PC

She speaks one language .

They speak one language. X

GF

Np PP Adj P Adv P
 Direct object [ Od ] the head verb here is monotransitive .

[ [The tramp] [[ was folding] [the magazine ] [for the second time ] ].
NP PP
GF Od
The tramp was folding the magazine
The tramp was folding for the second time. Adjunct
1.The tramps were folding the magazine .
2.passive : the magazine was being fold by the tramp .
Indirect Object [ Oi ] [ ditransitive verb ]

[ [ She ] [ [ gave ] [ the tramp] [ no chocolate ] ] ]

NP NP

Oi Od

The tramp was given no chocolate by her.

No chocolate was given to the tramp by her.

She gave the tramp .x

She gave no chocolate .x

She gave no chocolate to the tramp .

Od Oi
She poured the tramp a drink

Oi Od

She poured the tramp.

She poured a drink .

The tramp was poured a drink by her.

A drink was poured for the tramp by her.

She poured a drink for the tramp .

Od Oi

Ditransitive verbs [ NP -NP ] { NP -PP ( to )

{ Np -Np ] { Np -PP ( for )

Adverbial complements with intransitive verbs [AC ]
The newspaper remained with Mr Ellis for three hours . [ P-Adjunct ]

PP

The newspaper remained.x

The newspaper remained with Mr.Ellis .

The newspaper remained for three hours.*

He remained there Adv P

The lecture lasted ( for ) two hours .( PP) / (NP)

The lecture finished quickly.

AC ------ intransitive [ NP / PP / AdvP ]

They were in the garden / happy / doctors . [ Pc ] = PP / adj P / NP

She visits her cousins . NP [ Od ]

Her cousins are visited by her .

She lives in Amman. AC PP / NP / Adv p

She brought her sister two flowers. [ Oi / Od ]

Adverbial Complement with transitive verbs [ AC ]
John [ [ put ] [ the money ] [ in the box] ] . [ there ]

NP PP

Od

John put the money .

The children always remind me with their grandfather .

Np PP

He read the question very carefully . [ Adv p ]

Transitive verb ----- Od - AC [ PP / Adv p ]

Predicative complement + adverbial complement :
Complex function [ PC+AC ] Complex transitive verb
Od+ Pc+Ac
The government set the prisoner free

NP Adj P

Od

The prisoner is free

Su Pc + Ac

The Vicar flung the door open

The door is open

Pc + Ac
Mr. john called his wife sweetheart .

Pc + Ac

His wife is sweetheart.

They named him Mr. President .

Pc +Ac

He is Mr.Presedent
Verb Adjunct VP- adjunct ] and sentence adjunct
[ S-adjunct ]
William walked slowly down the road

AdvP PP [ Ac ]

Vp - adjunct

She was certainly a very unreasonable person..

Predicate adjunct P+ A
They have painted the house red .

The house is red

P+A

The set the presenor free .

The prisoner is free

Pc + Ac

She married young .

ADj P