Motivation and Satisfaction

Bassam Abu Hamad

A
A successful
successful organization
organization cant
cant
be
be at
at war
war with
with its
its own
own
employees
employees
Successful
Successful organization
organization

 An interdependent network of individuals,

each contributing to the success of the
mission.

 The success of an organization is

significantly dependent upon the success
of its individuals
 Productivity
Productivity

 A measure of the quantity and quality of

work done, considering the cost of the
resources it took to do the work

 The more productive the more competitive

advantageous the organization is Individual
productivity
Individual
Individual performance
performance depends
depends on
on
 Abilities

 Motivation..satisfaction

 Support received

 Relationships

 Work being done

Benefits/importance
Benefits/importance of
of S
S and
and M
M
Retention
Retention
Commitment
Commitment
Productivity
Productivity
Loyalty
Loyalty
Ethical
Ethical dimension
dimension
Reducing
Reducing absenteeism
absenteeism
clients
clients satisfaction
satisfaction
Innovation
Innovation
 Response to Job Dissatisfaction
Active

Exit Voice
Destructive Constructive

Neglect Loyalty

Passive
A 100% retention rate may not
necessarily reflect good HR
practices.
Importance
Importance of
of Fit
Fit

“It
“It is
is natural
natural that
that any
any organization
organization
that
that hires
hires people,
people, fires
fires people,
people, too. too.
People
People needneed to
to be
be honest
honest and and
competent.
competent. IfIf aa person
person workingworking forfor
organization
organization doesdoes notnot respect
respect the the
rules
rules or or does
does not
not fit
fit in,
in, itit is
is better
better to
to
let
let that
that person
person go.”
go.”
 Defining
Defining satisfaction
satisfaction

Locke (1983) defines job satisfaction as "A pleasurable

or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal
of one's job or job experience". Job satisfaction results
from the person's perception that "one's job fulfils or
allows the fulfillment of one's important job value"
(Locke, 1983).
 Defining
Defining satisfaction
satisfaction

Although the consensus among researchers is that job

satisfaction consists of a positive attitude towards the
job, less agreement exists about how to measure it and
what factors to consider when examining it (Misener, et
al 1996).
There is much diversity among the findings of the
various studies, making it difficult to achieve a clear,
universal construct about job satisfaction and
motivation (Cavanagh, 1992; Grant, et al 1993).
Cavanagh (1992), who extensively studied job
satisfaction, claimed that there is no commonly
accepted definition of that concept
 Defining
Defining motivation
motivation

Motivation has been defined as “the inner

drives/impulses, which in order to satisfy
needs, cause a person to act in a particular
way” or “the degree to which an individual
wants and chooses to engage in certain
specified behaviours” (Childs, 1977).

Atkinson (1974) suggested a working definition

of motivation based on two pillars. Firstly, it is
an inferred, rather than an observed event and
secondly, it energises and directs behaviour
(Atkinson, 1974).
Defining
Defining motivation
motivation

Martin (1997) contended that motivation designates

that aspects of behaviour concerned with the
initiation, determination and intensity of goal
directed behaviour (Martin, 1997).

Therefore, motivation should be conceptualised as

being a multidimensional construct that can be
influenced by a number of factors, such as needs,
wants, mood, values and other external contextual
factors (Martin, 1997).
Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation

Motivation
The processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.
2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.
3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs Theory
Theory (Maslow)
(Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five
needs—physiological, safety,
social, esteem, and self-
actualization; as each need is
substantially satisfied, the
next need becomes
dominant.

Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming.
Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs

Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
needs.
Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY (Douglas
(Douglas McGregor)
McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees
dislike work, lack ambition,
avoid responsibility, and must
be directed and coerced to
perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees
like work, seek
responsibility, are capable of
making decisions, and
exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed
to a goal.
Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory (Frederick
(Frederick Herzberg)
Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job
satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are
associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors
Factors—such as company
policy and administration,
supervision, and salary—that,
when adequate in a job,
placate workers. When factors
are adequate, people will not
be dissatisfied.
 Comparison
ComparisonofofSatisfiers
Satisfiers
and
andDissatisfiers
Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led to
extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led
to extreme job satisfaction
Contrasting
ContrastingViews
Viewsof
of Satisfaction
Satisfactionand
andDissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction
ERG
ERG Theory
Theory (Clayton
(ClaytonAlderfer)
Alderfer)
ERG Theory
There are three groups of core needs:
existence, relatedness, and growth.

Core
CoreNeeds
Needs Concepts:
Concepts:
Existence:
Existence:provision
provisionof More
basic
of Morethan
thanone
oneneedneedcan
can
basicmaterial
material be operative at the same
be operative at the same
requirements.
requirements. time.
time.
Relatedness:
Relatedness:desire
desirefor IfIfaahigher-level
relationships.
for higher-levelneed
need
relationships. cannot
cannotbe befulfilled,
fulfilled,the
the
Growth: desire
desiretotosatisfy
satisfyaalower-
Growth:desire
desirefor
for level need increases.
lower-
personal
personaldevelopment.
development. level need increases.
David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to The desire for
achieve in relation to a set friendly and close
of standards, to strive to personal
succeed. relationships.

Need for Power nPow

The need to make others
behave in a way that
they would not have
behaved otherwise.
nAch nAff
Matching
Matching High
HighAchievers
Achievers and
and Jobs
Jobs
Cognitive
Cognitive Evaluation
Evaluation Theory
Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior
that had been previously only intrinsically
rewarding tends to decrease the overall
level of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to
jobs that are neither extremely
dull nor extremely interesting.
Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals,
with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Factors influencing the goals–

performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate
self-efficacy, task
characteristics, and national
culture.
Self-Efficacy
The individual’s belief that he
or she is capable of performing
a task.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory

The assumption that behavior is a function of its

consequences.

Concepts:
Concepts:
Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbebemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
by
providing
providing(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendstotobe
berepeated.
repeated.
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory

Job Characteristics
Model Characteristics:
Characteristics:
Identifies five job 1.
1. Skill
Skillvariety
variety
characteristics and 2. Task
their relationship to 2. Taskidentity
identity
personal and work 3.
3. Task
Tasksignificance
significance
outcomes. 4.
4. Autonomy
Autonomy
5.
5. Feedback
Feedback
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
 Job Characteristics Model
– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and for which feedback
of results is given, directly affect three
psychological states of employees:
• Knowledge of results
• Meaningfulness of work
• Personal feelings of responsibility for results
– Increases in these psychological states result in
increased motivation, performance, and job
satisfaction.
The
The Job
Job Characteristics
Characteristics Model
Model
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Skill Variety
The degree to which a job
requires a variety of different
activities.
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece
of work.
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people.
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides
substantial freedom and discretion to the
individual in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to be used in
carrying it out.
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work
activities required by a job results in the
individual obtaining direct and clear
information about the effectiveness of his or
her performance.
Computing
Computing aa Motivating
Motivating Potential
Potential Score
Score

People
Peoplewho
whowork
workon
onjobs
jobswith
withhigh
highcore
coredimensions
dimensionsare
are
generally
generallymore
moremotivated,
motivated,satisfied,
satisfied,and
andproductive.
productive.
Job
Jobdimensions
dimensionsoperate
operatethrough
throughthe
thepsychological
psychologicalstates
statesinin
influencing
influencingpersonal
personaland
andwork
workoutcome
outcomevariables
variablesrather
rather
than
thaninfluencing
influencingthem
themdirectly.
directly.
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Social Information Processing (SIP) Model

The fact that people respond to their jobs as
they perceive them rather than to the
objective jobs themselves.

Concept:
Concept:
Employee
Employeeattitudes
attitudesand
andbehaviors
behaviorsare
are
responses
responsesto
tosocial
socialcues
cuesby
byothers.
others.
Social
Social Information
Information Processing
Processing Model
Model (SIP)
(SIP)

 Concepts of the SIP Model

– Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors in
response to the social cues provided by others
(e.g., coworkers) with whom they have contact.
– Employees’ perception of the characteristics of
their jobs is as important as the actual
characteristics of their jobs.
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory

Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and
outcomes with those of others and then
respond to eliminate any inequities.
Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Choices
Choicesfor
fordealing
dealingwith
withinequity:
inequity:
1.
1. Change
Changeinputs
inputs(slack
(slackoff)
off)
2.
2. Change
Changeoutcomes
outcomes(increase
(increaseoutput)
output)
3.
3. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsof
ofself
self
4.
4. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofothers
others
5.
5. Choose
Chooseaadifferent
differentreferent
referentperson
person
6.
6. Leave
Leavethe
thefield
field(quit
(quitthe
thejob)
job)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Propositions
Propositionsrelating
relatingto
toinequitable
inequitablepay:
pay:
1.
1. Overrewarded
Overrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
produce
more
morethan
thanequitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees.
employees.
2.
2. Overrewarded
Overrewardedpiece-work
piece-workemployees
employees
produce
produceless,
less,but
butdodohigher
higherquality
qualitypiece
piece
work.
work.
3.
3. Underrewarded
Underrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
produce
lower
lowerquality
qualitywork.
work.
4.
4. Underrewarded
Underrewardedemployees
employeesproduce
producelarger
larger
quantities
quantitiesof
oflower-quality
lower-qualitypiece
piecework
workthan
than
equitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees
employees
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the
amount and allocation of
rewards among
individuals.

Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness
of the process to
determine the
distribution of
rewards.
Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends on the strength of an expectation
that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.
Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory Relationships
Relationships

 Effort–Performance Relationship
– The probability that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance.
 Performance–Reward Relationship
– The belief that performing at a particular level
will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
 Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship
– The degree to which organizational rewards
satisfy an individual’s goals or needs and the
attractiveness of potential rewards for the
individual.
 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

 Vroom (1964) proposed that employees’ job

satisfaction and motivation is directly related to the
extent to which their jobs provide them with
rewarding outcomes. These rewards include
things, such as pay, recognition, promotion, close
interaction with colleagues, professional autonomy
and so on (Vroom, 1964).

 Additionally, Vroom described six main

determinants of job satisfaction and motivation.
These include supervision, the work group, job
content, wages, promotional opportunity and hours
of work (Vroom, 1964).
 Source
Source of
of differences
differences

These include, personality differences, job differences

and value differences (Locke, 1983).
 The personality differences perspective, views job
satisfaction and motivation as a phenomenon that
can be explained predominantly in terms of the
personalities and the demographic character of the
individual workers (Locke, 1983).
 The job differences perspectives argue that
variations in job satisfaction and motivation among
workers are the result of the differences in the
nature of the jobs that people perform.
 Source
Source of
of differences
differences

 The value differences perspectives have a different

focus.
 Differences arise not only because people evaluate
similar job characteristics and organisational
contexts differently but also because of the
different values people gain from work or the work
environment, or from needs that are identified and
satisfied through work (Cavanagh, 1992; Andrews,
1998). Therefore, some people view their work as a
very important part of their life, whilst others
consider it to be an aspect of life, which exists to
meet other needs (Harri, 1996).
Domains affecting employees’ satisfaction
(Satisfaction level ranges from 50-60%)
Employees’ satisfaction and characteristics
Employees’ satisfaction and organizational
What
What is
is MBO?
MBO?

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific
goals, participatively set, for an explicit
time period, with feedback on goal
progress.
Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Goal
Goalspecificity
specificity
2.
2. Participative
Participativedecision
decisionmaking
making
3.
3. An
Anexplicit
explicittime
timeperiod
period
4.
4. Performance
Performancefeedback
feedback
Cascading
Cascading of
of Objectives
Objectives
Linking
Linking MBO
MBO and
and Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No
(qualified)
Why
Why MBO’s
MBO’s Fail
Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities
Employee
Employee Recognition
Recognition Programs
Programs
 Types of programs
– Personal attention
– Expressing interest
– Approval
– Appreciation for a job well done
 Benefits of programs
– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition.
– Encourages repetition of desired behaviors.
– Enhance group/team cohesiveness and
motivation.
– Encourages employee suggestions for improving
processes and cutting costs.
What
What is
is Employee
Employee Involvement?
Involvement?
Employee Involvement Program
A participative process that uses the entire
capacity of employees and is designed to
encourage increased commitment to the
organization’s success.
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement Programs
Programs

Participative Management
A process in which subordinates share a
significant degree of decision-making power
with their immediate superiors.
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement Programs
Programs
(cont’d)
(cont’d)
Representative
Participation
Works Councils
Workers participate in Groups of nominated or
elected employees who
organizational
must be consulted when
decision making management makes
through a small group decisions involving
of representative personnel.
employees. Board Representative
A form of representative
participation; employees sit
on a company’s board of
directors and represent the
interests of the firm’s
employees.
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement Programs
Programs
(cont’d)
(cont’d)
Quality Circle
A work group of employees who meet
regularly to discuss their quality
problems, investigate causes,
recommend solutions, and take
corrective actions.
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement Programs
Programs
(cont’d)
(cont’d)

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Company-established benefit plans in which
employees acquire stock as part of their
benefits.
Job
Job Design
Design and
and Scheduling
Scheduling

Job Rotation
The periodic shifting of a worker
from one task to another.

Job Enlargement
The horizontal
expansion of jobs.

Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of
jobs.
Guidelines
Guidelines for
for Enriching
Enriching aa Job
Job
Work
Work Schedule
Schedule Options
Options

Flextime
Employees work during a common core time
period each day but have discretion in forming
their total workday from a flexible set of hours
outside the core.
Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people
split a 40-hour-a-week job.
Work
Work Schedule
Schedule Options
Options

Telecommuting
Employees do their work at home on a
computer that is linked to their office.

Categories
Categoriesof
oftelecommuting
telecommutingjobs:
jobs:
• • Routine
Routineinformation
informationhandling
handlingtasks
tasks
• • Mobile
Mobileactivities
activities
• • Professional
Professionaland
andother
otherknowledge-related
knowledge-relatedtasks
tasks
Telecommuting
Telecommuting
 Advantages  Disadvantages
– Larger labor pool (Employer)
– Higher – Less direct
productivity supervision of
employees
– Less turnover
– Difficult to
– Improved morale coordinate
– Reduced office- teamwork
space costs – Difficult to
evaluate non-
quantitative
performance
Variable
Variable Pay
Pay Programs
Programs

Variable Pay Programs

A portion of an employee’s pay is based on
some individual and/or organization measure
of performance.
• Piece rate pay plans
• Profit sharing plans
• Gain sharing plans
Variable
Variable Pay
Pay Programs
Programs (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Piece-rate Pay Plans
Workers are paid a fixed sum for
each unit of production
completed.
Profit-Sharing Plans
Organizationwide programs that distribute
compensation based on some established
formula designed around a company’s
profitability.
Gain Sharing
An incentive plan in which improvements in
group productivity determine the total amount
of money that is allocated.
Skill-Based
Skill-Based Pay
Pay Plans
Plans

Pay levels are based on how many skills

employees have or how many jobs they can do.

Benefits
Benefitsof
ofSkill-based
Skill-basedPay
PayPlans:
Plans:
1.1. Provides
Providesstaffing
staffingflexibility.
flexibility.
2.2. Facilitates
Facilitatescommunication
communicationacross acrossthe
theorganization.
organization.
3.3. Lessens
Lessens“protection
“protectionof
ofterritory”
territory”behaviors.
behaviors.
4.4. Meets
Meetsthe
theneeds
needsofofemployees
employeesforforadvancement
advancement
(without
(withoutpromotion).
promotion).
5.5. Leads
Leadsto
toperformance
performanceimprovements.
improvements.
Skill-Based
Skill-Based Pay
Pay Plans
Plans (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Drawbacks
Drawbacksof
ofSkill-based
Skill-basedPay
PayPlans:
Plans:
1.1. Lack
Lackof
ofadditional
additionallearning
learningopportunities
opportunitiesthat
thatwill
will
increase
increaseemployee
employeepay.
pay.
2.2. Continuing
Continuingto
topay
payemployees
employeesfor
forskills
skillsthat
thathave
have
become
becomeobsolete.
obsolete.
3.3. Paying
Payingfor
forskills
skillswhich
whichare
areof
ofno
noimmediate
immediateuse
use
to
tothe
theorganization.
organization.
4.4. Paying
Payingfor
foraaskill,
skill,not
notfor
forthe
thelevel
levelof
ofemployee
employee
performance
performancefor forthe
theparticular
particularskill.
skill.
Flexible
Flexible Benefits
Benefits

Employees tailor
their benefit Core-Plus
Core-PlusPlans:
Plans:
program to meet aacore
coreof
ofessential
essential
their personal need benefits
benefitsand
andaamenu-like
menu-like
selection
selectionof
ofother
otherbenefit
benefit
by picking and
options.
options.
choosing from a
menu of benefit
options. Flexible
FlexibleSpending
SpendingPlans:
Plans:
Modular
ModularPlans:
Plans:
predesigned allow
allowemployees
employeestotouse
use
predesignedbenefits
benefits their
packages
packagesfor
forspecific
specific theirtax-free
tax-freebenefit
benefit
groups dollars
dollarspurchase
purchasebenefits
benefits
groupsof
ofemployees.
employees. and
andpay
payservice
service
premiums.
premiums.
Implications
Implications for
for Managers
Managers
 Motivating Employees in Organizations
– Recognize individual differences.
– Use goals and feedback.
– Allow employees to participate in
decisions that affect them.
– Link rewards to performance.
– Check the system for equity.