B1.

1 Carbohydrates and lipids

Hatice ÖZMEN
TED Ankara College Private High School
IB BIOLOGY

[email protected]
 B1.1.1 Chemical properties of a carbon atom 2

allowing for the formation of diverse

compounds upon which life is based
• Carbon atoms can form covalent bonds with other
atoms.
• A covalent bond is formed by sharing a pair of
electrons between two adjacent atoms.
• The negatively charged shared electrons are
attracted to the positively charged nuclei of both
atoms.
• Covalent bonds are the strongest type of bond
between atoms. This means stable molecules based
on carbon can be produced
 3

• Each carbon atom can form four covalent

bonds, so molecules containing carbon
can have complex structures.
• There can be four single covalent bonds
or two single and one double covalent
bond. Double covalent bonds are found,
for example, in unsaturated fatty acids
 4

• Carbon atoms can form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms or with
atoms of other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen or
phosphorus.
• Carbon atoms can bond with four atoms of one other element—for
example, with four hydrogen atoms to form methane.
• They can also bond to more than one other element—for example, with
oxygen and hydrogen to form ethanol
 5

• Carbon atoms can be linked up by covalent bonds to form a chain of

any length. Fatty acids contain unbranched chains of up to 20 carbon
atoms.
• Chains can also be branched, with the branch often made using an
oxygen atom. Single covalent bonds allow both of the bonded atoms
to rotate, but not to move further apart or nearer to each other.
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• The covalent bonds formed by a carbon atom

spread apart as much as possible so they form a
tetrahedral shape.

• a chain of covalently bonded carbon atoms is not

straight—the straightest it can be is a zig-zag.
 7

• Because of the bond angles, chains of carbon

atoms can form rings. The ring may be made
entirely of carbon atoms.
• A molecule may contain a single ring as in the
base thymine
 8

SI units
• The International System of Units (SI) is the scheme for metric units of
measurement
Base units Examples of derived units Metric prexes

 second (s) time  newton (N) force (kgms 2 )  giga (G) 10 9 (billion)

 metre (m) length  hertz (Hz) frequency (s 1 )  mega (M) 10 6 (million)

 kilogram (kg) mass  pascal (Pa) pressure (Nm 2 )  kilo (k) 10 3 (thousand)

 ampere (A) electric current  joule (J) energy (Nm)  milli (m) 10 3 (thousandth)

 kelvin (K) temperature  watt (W) power (Js 1 )  micro 10 6 (millionth)

 mole (mol) amount of substance  volt (V) voltage (WA 1 )  nano 10 9 (billionth)

 candela (cd) luminous intensity  lux (lx) illuminance (cdm 2 )  pico 10 12 (trillionth)
 B1.1.2 Production of macromolecules by 9

condensation reactions that link monomers to form

a polymer

• Macromolecules are molecules composed of a very large number of

atoms, with a relative molecular mass above 10,000 atomic mass
units.
• The main classes of macromolecule in living organisms are
polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic acids.
• Each of these is made by linking together subunits into a chain.
• The subunits are monomers and the chain is a polymer.
 10

• The chemical process that links another monomer onto the end of the
polymer is a condensation reaction.
• When polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic acids are
constructed, water is released. It is produced by removing a hydroxyl
group (–OH) from one of the molecules being linked and a hydrogen
from the other.
• Energy is required to construct polysaccharides, polypeptides and
nucleic acids by condensation. This energy is supplied by ATP.
 The synthesis of
11

polysaccharides
• A disaccharide is two monosaccharides linked together.
• A polysaccharide is a chain of monosaccharides.
• Glucose is the monosaccharide used to make the polysaccharides
glycogen, starch and cellulose.
• Glucose molecules are linked up with glycosidic bonds.
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• These are C–O–C linkages

formed by condensation,
using hydroxyl groups. The
hydroxyl on C1 of a glucose
is linked to the hydroxyl on
C4 at the end of the growing
chain.
• In an unbranched chain, all
the glycosidic bonds are
1→4.
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• To form branches, the C1 of a glucose is linked to the C6 of a glucose

already in the chain.
• This 1→6 linkage forms a side-branch, and more glucose molecules
can be added to it with 1→4 bonds
 14
• Cellulose molecules in plant cell walls are unbranched chains of β
glucose that can contain 15,000 or more glucose molecules.
• Glycogen molecules in liver or muscles cells are branched chains of α
glucose, with up to 60,000 glucose molecules
 B1.1.3 Digestion of polymers 15

into monomers by hydrolysis

reactions
• Hydrolysis reactions are used to deconstruct polysaccharides,
polypeptides and nucleic acids into monosaccharides, amino acids
and nucleotides.
• These are the reactions that occur during digestion that can be
carried out inside or outside of the cell
 B1.1.4 Form and function of
16

monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides have between three
and seven carbon atoms.
• Pentoses have five carbons and
hexoses have six.
• Both pentoses and hexoses normally
have molecules with a ring of atoms.
 17
Use of molecular models: Modelling glucose
1. Using a molecule model kit, construct a model of structure A. This is the straight-chain form.
2. Twist the model so that carbon 1 comes near the oxygen attached to carbon 5 as shown in structure B.
3. Break the double bond on carbon 1 and remove the hydrogen attached to the oxygen attached to carbon 5.
4. Attach carbon 1 to the oxygen on carbon 5 and reposition the detached hydrogen as shown in structure C.
5. Place the model on a table. Identify the plane of the ring. Which –OH groups are above the plane of the ring
and which are below it?
6. Is your model α-glucose or β-glucose?
 Data-based questions: Health
consequences of the consumption of 18

fructose
Obesity (excessive weight) is recognized as a global health problem and has
been correlated with a large number of health issues, diseases and deaths.
The increased consumption of fructose, now widely used as a sweetener,
has been associated with the increase in obesity. In a study, mice were
divided into four groups. Each group was given the same amount of food
and either a so drink with a different sweetener or water.
 19

1. Distinguish between the structure of sucrose and fructose. [1]

sucrose is a disaccharide; fructose is a monosaccharide;
2. Use the graph in Figure 12 to compare and contrast the body fat accumulation in the four groups of mice.
• body fat accumulation increased over time for all four groups;
• fructose caused the (significantly) greatest accumulation of fat and water the least;
• sucrose and artificial sweetener/diet soft drink had the same increase;
• sucrose, artificial sweetener and water did not start accumulating fat until after 20 days while fructose
increased from the beginning;
• glucose-fed group has no/little increase in triglycerides while fructose-fed group has a (large) increase;
• glucose-fed group has smaller variability than the fructose-fed group;
• more triglycerides in fructose-fed group than glucose-fed group (from week 2 to week 10);
 20

Studies investigated the role of glucose and fructose in the development of pancreatic cancer
cells. Pancreatic cancer cells were grown in equal concentrations of each sugar and the uptake of
each into ribose-producing pathways was measured. The graph in Figure 13 shows the range of
uptake of sugars and the mean value.
3. Discuss if the results provide clear evidence of a difference in uptake of the two sugars. [2]
• glucose has a much greater range of uptake / vice versa;but a (much) lower mean / uptake /
vice versa;
• there is no overlap (so there is clear evidence);
4. Determine which sugar is primarily used in the production of ribose by pancreatic cancer cells.
[1]
fructose
 Properties and uses of glucose
21

• Like all monosaccharides, glucose is soluble and is a relatively small

molecule, so it is easily transported.
• It circulates in blood, dissolved in the plasma.
• Like most other carbohydrates, glucose is chemically very stable. This
property is useful for food storage.
• Glucose would cause osmotic problems if it was stored in cells in large
quantities. Therefore, it is usually converted to glycogen or starch.
• Glucose yields energy when it is oxidized. It can therefore be used as
a substrate for respiration
 B1.1.5 Polysaccharides as energy
22

storage compounds
• Starch and glycogen are used as energy stores.
• Starch is used in plants and glycogen in animals.
• Both of these substances are composed of large numbers of α-glucose
molecules.
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There are two types of starch molecule.

• Amylose is an unbranched chain of α-

glucose linked by 1→4 glycosidic bonds.
Because of the bond angles, the chain is
helical rather than straight.
• Amylopectin has the same structure
as amylose but there are some 1→6
glycosidic bonds making the molecule
branched
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• A hydrolysis reaction breaks a 1→4 glycosidic bond to separate one

glucose molecule from the end of a chain.
• Starch and glycogen as a sort of bank account because glucose can be
deposited when there is a surplus and withdrawn when there is a
shortage.
• Adding or removing glucose can happen more quickly with
amylopectin than amylose because the branched structure provides
more ends of chains.
 25

• Glycogen has a similar structure to amylopectin: α-glucose molecules linked

by 1→4 glycosidic bonds and branched by 1→6 bonding.
• In glycogen, about 1 in 10 glucose molecules has a 1→6 bond, compared with
about 1 in 20 in amylopectin, so glycogen molecules are more branched.
• The very large size of these molecules gives them much lower solubility than
glucose, so they contribute little to the osmotic concentration of cells.
• The branched structure of glycogen and amylopectin makes them relatively
compact
 B1.1.6 Structure of cellulose related to its 26

function as a structural polysaccharide in

plants
• Cellulose, like starch and glycogen, is composed of glucose, but its
properties are markedly different because it is a polymer of β-glucose
rather than α-glucose.
• All the links in cellulose are 1→4 glycosidic bonds, so it is an
unbranched chain.
• In β-glucose, the –OH group on C1 is angled upwards and the –OH 27

group on C4 is angled downwards.

• To bring these –OH groups together and allow a condensation
reaction to occur, each β-glucose added to the chain has to be
inverted in relation to the previous one. The glucose subunits in the
chain therefore face alternately upwards and downwards
 28

• In cellulose the alternating orientation of β-

glucose results in a straight chain that allows
formation of bundles of molecules arranged in
parallel.
• Hydroxyl groups are regularly spaced along
each cellulose molecule, allowing many
hydrogen bonds to form between the
molecules.
• These bundles of cellulose molecules are
called microfibrils and are the basis of plant
cell walls.
• Microfibrils have very high tensile strength
because of the strong covalent bonds in the
cellulose molecules.
 B1.1.7 Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell
29

recognition
• Glycoproteins are composed of polypeptides with
carbohydrate attached. In most cases, the carbohydrate is an
oligosaccharide
• Glycoproteins are a component of plasma membranes in
animal cells and are positioned with the attached carbohydrate
facing outwards.
• The glycoprotein on the surface of one cell is recognized by
receptors on the surface of another cell.
• The ABO antigens in red blood cells are an example of
glycoproteins providing the means of cell–cell recognition
 ABO glycoproteins
30

• Red blood cells have glycoproteins in their

membranes that do not have a known function,
but that affect blood transfusion.
• The oligosaccharides are called O, A and B.
• One or two of these types of glycoprotein are
present in every person’s blood, but not all three.
• If blood containing glycoprotein A is transfused
into a person who does not produce it themself,
the blood will be rejected. Similarly, blood
containing glycoprotein B is rejected if a person
does not produce it themself.
• However, glycoprotein O does not cause
rejection problems, because it has the same
structure as A and B with one monosaccharide
less, so is not recognized as foreign.
 31

B1.1.8 Hydrophobic properties of lipids

• Lipids are a diverse group of substances in living organisms that dissolve in
non-polar solvents like ethanol, toluene and propanone (acetone)
• Lipids are only sparingly soluble in aqueous (water-based) solvents. For this
reason, they are said to be hydrophobic.
 32

B1.1.8 Hydrophobic properties of lipids

• Fats, oils, waxes and steroids are classes of commonly occurring lipids.
• Oils have a melting point below 20°C, so they solidify at low temperatures.
• Fats have a melting point between 20°C and 37°C so they are solid at room temperature
and liquid at body temperature.
• Waxes have a melting point above 37°C, so they liquify at high temperatures.
• Steroids have molecules with a characteristic four-ring structure
 B1.1.9 Formation of 33

triglycerides and phospholipids

by condensation reactions
• A triglyceride is made by combining three fatty acids with one
glycerol. Each of the fatty acids is linked to the glycerol by a
condensation reaction, so three water molecules are produced.
• The linkage formed between each fatty acid and the glycerol is an
ester bond.
 34
• Triglycerides are entirely hydrophobic.
• Depending on the type of fatty acids they contain, triglycerides may
be oils or fats
 35

Phospholipids
• Phospholipids have a structure
similar to triglycerides, but
there are two fatty acids linked
to glycerol, with a phosphate
group instead of a third fatty
acid.
• The phosphate is hydrophilic, so
phospholipid molecules are
partly hydrophilic and partly
hydrophobic.
 B1.1.10 Difference between saturated, 36

monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty

acids
• Fatty acids have an unbranched chain of carbon atoms, with hydrogen
atoms covalently bonded, so it is a hydrocarbon chain.
• The acid part of the molecule is a carboxyl group (–COOH) at one end
of the chain. At the other end there is a methyl group (–CH3 ).
• The length of the hydrocarbon chain is variable but most of the fatty
acids used by living organisms have between 14 and 20 carbon atoms
 37

• A fatty acid with single bonds between all of its carbon atoms
contains as much hydrogen as it possibly could and is called a
saturated fatty acid.
• Fatty acids that have one or more double bonds are unsaturated
because they contain less hydrogen than they could. If there is one
double bond, the fatty acid is monounsaturated; if it has more than
one double bond, it is polyunsaturated.
 38

• Nearly all unsaturated fatty acids in living organisms have the

hydrogen atoms on the same side of the two double-bonded carbon
atoms—these are called cis-fatty acids.
• The alternative arrangement is for the hydrogens to be on opposite
sides—these are called trans-fatty acids.
39
 B1.1.11 Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy storage 40

and thermal insulation

• In animals, the triglycerides are fats and are stored in specialized

groups of cells called adipose tissue which is located immediately
beneath the skin and also around some organs including the kidneys
in humans.
• The properties of triglycerides make them particularly suitable for
long-term energy storage.
 41

• They are chemically very stable, so energy is not lost over time.
• They naturally form droplets in the cytoplasm which do not have
osmotic or other effects on the cell.
• They release twice as much energy per gram in cell respiration as
carbohydrate, so enough energy can be stored in half the body mass.
This is important for animals that move and especially for birds and
bats that fly.
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• They are poor conductors of heat, so they can be used as a thermal

insulator in animals that need to conserve body heat.
• They are liquid at body temperature, so they can act as a shock
absorber—for example, around the kidneys.
 B1.1.12 Formation of phospholipid bilayers as 43

a consequence of the hydrophobic and

hydrophilic regions
• Substances attracted to water are called
hydrophilic. Other substances that are not
attracted to water are called hydrophobic.
• Phospholipids are unusual because part of
a phospholipid molecule is hydrophilic and
part is hydrophobic. Substances with this
property are described as amphipathic.
 44

• When phospholipids are mixed with water the phosphate heads are
attracted to the water but the hydrocarbon tails are attracted to each
other more than to the water.
• Because of this the phospholipids become arranged into double
layers, with the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails facing inwards and the
hydrophilic heads facing outwards to the water on either side.
• These double layers are called phospholipid bilayers.
 B1.1.13 Ability of non-polar 45

steroids to pass through the

phospholipid bilayer
• Steroids are a group of lipids with molecules similar to sterol. They
can be identified using these features:
• four fused rings of carbon atoms
• three cyclohexane rings (Figure; A, B and C) and one cyclopentane ring
(Figure; D)
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• 17 carbon atoms in total in the rings.

• There are hundreds of examples of steroids, which differ in the
position of C=C double bonds and in the functional groups such as –
OH that are added to the four-ring structure.
• Steroids are mostly hydrocarbon and therefore hydrophobic. This
allows them to pass through phospholipid bilayers and enter or leave
cells.
 47

• Testosterone and oestradiol have very similar molecular structures

despite their markedly different effects on the body.
• Hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon are not shown but can be
inferred because each carbon atom has a total of four bonds
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