CTS COLLEGE PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL

CSEC MATHEMATICS
Topic: Number Theory
 Topic Overview

• Sets of Numbers
• Types of Numbers
• Number Sequences
• Properties of Operations
• Place Value and Value
• Recap
 Sets of Numbers
• The following sets are described by listing the elements. We include three dots at the
end to indicate that the set is infinite. This means that we can count forever and still will
not be able to reach the end.
• denotes the set of whole numbers.

• denotes the set of natural numbers or counting numbers.

• denotes the set of integers - these are positive and negative whole numbers.
Sets of Numbers

• denotes the set of rational numbers. A rational number is any number that can be
expressed in the form , where and are integers, . Rational
numbers include integers, fractions, decimals that are either recurring or terminating.

• Some examples of rational numbers are , , , , , and .

• All rational numbers can be expressed in an exact form.

Sets of Numbers

• denotes the set of irrational numbers. Numbers that are not rational are irrational.
Hence, any number that cannot be expressed in the form (where and are integers,
), is an irrational number.

• Some examples of irrational numbers are , , , and .

• When irrational numbers are written in root form, we refer to them as surds and in this
form, they are considered as exact. When irrational numbers are written as decimals,
they are non-terminating and non-recurring and hence, they are not exact.
Sets of Numbers

• denotes the set of real numbers. Real numbers are a combination of rational and
irrational numbers, that is , where is the set of rational numbers, is the set of irrational
numbers and is the set of real numbers.

• The Venn Diagram below shows the relationship between these sets. The universal set
represents the set of real numbers, .
 Types of Numbers
• Even numbers are natural numbers that are divisible by 2. The
set of even numbers is an infinite set.
• Even numbers end in either or .

• Odd numbers are natural numbers that are not divisible by 2.

The set of odd numbers is an infinite set.
• Odd numbers end in either or .
Types of Numbers

• A prime number has only two distinct factors, itself and one. For this reason,
1 is not considered prime, since it has only one factor.
The first ten prime numbers are: .

• A composite number has at least one other factor besides itself and one, that is,
at least three factors. The set of composite numbers is infinite.
The first ten composite numbers are .

• a square number is a number that is obtained by the product of two same

numbers. That is, they are perfect squares or they have exact square roots.
The first ten square numbers are .
Types of Numbers

• Multiples are numbers that we get when we multiply one whole number by another
whole number. We can generate the set of multiples of a number by multiplying the
number by 1, 2, 3, and so on.

• In the table below, multiples of the numbers 2, 5 and 12 are shown.

Types of Numbers

• Factors of a number are the whole number divisors of that number.

Every number, except 1, has at least two factors.

• The table below lists the factors of some numbers. Note

that 5 is a prime number while 12 and 27 are composite numbers.
Types of Numbers

• The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of a set of numbers is the lowest multiple
that is common to all the numbers of the set.

• To find the LCM of two or more numbers, we list the multiples of each number,
identify the common multiples and select the lowest among the common multiples.

• Example: Find the LCM of and 12.

Multiples of :
Multiples of :
Notice that common multiples are
The Lowest Common Multiple is .
Types of Numbers

• Example: Find the LCM of and .

Multiples of :
Multiples of :
The Lowest Common Multiple is .

• Example: Find the LCM of and .

Multiples of :
Multiples of :
Multiples of :
The Lowest Common Multiple is .
Types of Numbers

• When finding the LCM of a set of numbers we must note the following:

1. If one number in the set is a multiple of the others, then the LCM is simply the
largest number in the set. For example, the LCM of 3, 6 and 9 is 9.

2. If there are no common factors among the set of numbers, then the LCM is the
product of the numbers in the set. For example, the LCM of 3, 5 and 7 is 105.

3. If there are factors common to members of the set of the numbers, then we can
choose to use the above method of listing the multiples.
Types of Numbers

• The Highest Common Factor (HCF) of a set of numbers is the highest number that
is a factor of all the numbers of the set.

• To find the HCF of two or more numbers, we list the factors of each number, identify
the common factors and select the lowest among the common factors.

• Example: Find the HCF of and 12.

Factors of :
Factors of :
Notice that common factors are
The Highest Common Factor is .
Types of Numbers

• Example: Find the HCF of and .

Factors of :
Factors of :
The Highest Common Factor is .

• Example: Find the HCF of and .

Factors of :
Factors of :
Factors of :
The Highest Common Factor is .
Types of Numbers

• LCM and HCF by prime factorization

• The above methods are very effective when computing LCM and HCF of small
numbers. However, for larger numbers, it becomes tedious and the method of prime
factorisation is preferred.

• In using these methods we must express the number as a product of its prime factors.
We may use a ladder method to perform this task.

• For the LCM, This method requires finding a prime divisor for at least one of the
numbers continuously until the numbers are reduced to 1. The products of the divisors
give the LCM.

• For the HCF, This method requires finding a prime divisor that is common for all
numbers continuously until there are no common prime factors. The products of the
divisors give the HCF
Types of Numbers

• Example: Find the LCM of 24 and 36.

• Using the ladder method, identify the prime factors.

• The LCM of 24 and 36 is

Types of Numbers

• Example: Find the HCF of 24 and 36.

• Using the ladder method, identify the common prime factors.

• The HCF of 24 and 36 is

Types of Numbers

Worded problems involving LCM and HCF

• In solving word problems on LCM and HCF, we try to figure if the answer involves
finding multiples or factors. We must remember that multiples are associated with LCM,
while factors are associated with HCF.

• Example: Boxes that are inches tall are being stacked next to boxes that are inches tall.
What is the shortest height at which the two stacks will be the same height?

• Identify the prime factors.

• The LCM of and is

• Therefore, the shortest height at which the two stacks will be the same height is inches.
Types of Numbers

Worded problems involving LCM and HCF

• Example: Two neon lights are turned on at the same time. One blinks every seconds and
the other blinks every seconds. In seconds, how many times will they blink at the same
time?

• Identify the prime factors.

• The LCM of and is

• To find out how many times they will blink together in 60 seconds, we divide the total
time by the interval at which they blink together. That is,
• Therefore, the two neon lights will blink at the same time times in seconds.
Types of Numbers

Worded problems involving LCM and HCF

• Example: Alice has two lengths of ribbon. One length of ribbon is cm long and the other
length is cm long. Alice wants to cut lengths of ribbon into shorter lengths that are of
equal length. What is the longest possible length of each piece of ribbon?

• Identify the common prime factors.

• The HCF of and is

• Therefore, the longest possible length of each piece of ribbon is cm.
Types of Numbers

Worded problems involving LCM and HCF

• Example: Carina has apples, bundles of bananas and lemons. She wants to put all of
the fruit into plastic containers, each with the same number of pieces of fruit in it. What is
the greatest number of pieces of fruit she can put in each plastic container?

• Identify the common prime factors.

• The HCF of and is

• Therefore, The greatest number of pieces of fruit Carina can put in each plastic container
is .
 Number Sequence
• A number sequence is an ordered list of numbers in which there is a recognisable
pattern. The sequence is predictable in that successive terms can be derived from
some definite rule. The nature of the rule determines the type of sequence.

Arithmetic sequence
• If a sequence of values follows a pattern of adding a fixed amount from one term
to the next term in the sequence, it is referred to as an arithmetic sequence. The
number that is added to each term is constant, that is, it is always the same. This
constant value is called the common difference and may take any value: positive,
negative or even a fraction.
Number Sequence

Arithmetic sequence
• Example: An increasing sequence:
• In this sequence, the difference between any two consecutive terms is and so we say
that the sequence has a common difference of . Since the difference is positive, this is
an increasing sequence.

• Example: A decreasing sequence:

• In this sequence, the difference between any two consecutive terms is always and so
we say that the sequence has a common difference of . Since the difference is
negative, this is a decreasing sequence.
Number Sequence

Geometric sequence
• A sequence in which each term is obtained by multiplying the term before by some
constant value is called a geometric sequence. This constant value is called the
common ratio and may take any value - positive, negative or even fractional.

• Example: An increasing sequence:

• This sequence is obtained by multiplying any term by to get the next one and so we
say that this sequence has a common ratio of .

• Example: A decreasing sequence:

• This sequence is obtained by dividing any term by 3 to get the next one and so we say
that this sequence has a common ratio of . Recall that dividing by 3 is equivalent to
multiplying by .
Number Sequence

• The above two types of number sequences have their consecutive terms separated
by either a common difference (arithmetic) or a common ratio (geometric).
These are other sequences that do not follow this pattern.

Square Sequence
• Square numbers form a square pattern when arranged as shown below. There is a
recognisable pattern in this sequence and one can obtain any term by squaring its
sequence number.
Number Sequence

• Triangular Sequence
• Triangular numbers are numbers that can be represented by triangular arrays or
configurations, as shown below.
The first ten triangular numbers are:

• The diagram below shows how the sequence of triangular numbers can be generated.
The starting number is one, similar to the square numbers.
 Properties of Operations
• When performing the four arithmetic operations (Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication and Division) on numbers or algebraic symbols, we make use of
certain properties that help us to simplify computational tasks.

The Commutative Law

• The commutative law say that when we add or multiply numbers, the order in which
the operation is performed does not affect the eventual result.

• For example,
OR

• The and the can be switched in addition and the result is the same.
• The and the can be switched in multiplication and the result is the same
Properties of Operations

The Commutative Law

• This property holds for the operations of addition and multiplication.
For any real number, the law is stated as follows:

• The Commutative Law does NOT hold for the operations of subtraction and division.
In other words, when we switch the order, the result is not the same.
• We can test this as follows:
but . Hence, .
• Also, but . Hence, .
Properties of Operations

The Associative Law

• This law is used when performing operations involving at least three numbers. It
states that grouping the numbers in different ways for addition or for multiplication
does not affect the result.
• The different groupings can be illustrated by inserting brackets or parentheses within
the expression – it does not matter how the groups are formed, the answer remains the
same.

• For example,
• Association law for addition:

• Association law for multiplication:

Properties of Operations

The Associative Law

• This property holds for the operations of addition and multiplication.
For any real number, the law is stated as follows:

• The Associate Law does NOT hold for the operations of subtraction and division. In
other words, when we regroup the numbers, the result is not the same.
• We can test this as follows:
but . Hence, not equal.
• Also, but . Hence, not equal.
Properties of Operations

The Distributive Law

• This law is very useful both in arithmetic and algebra when removing or inserting
brackets in expressions that involve two or more terms.

• For example,
• Distribute multiplication over addition and subtraction:

• Distribute division over addition and subtraction:

Properties of Operations

The Distributive Law

• For any real number, the law is stated as follows:
Properties of Operations

Closure
• A set is said to be closed under an operation if the following is true:
When two elements of the set are combined under the operation, the result is also a
member of the set.

• For example, the set of whole numbers is closed under addition. This is so because if
we add two whole numbers we will always get a whole number,
• for example, ; and are whole numbers and is also a whole number.

• However, if we subtract two whole numbers we do not always get a whole number.
• for example . Since is not a member of the set of whole numbers, we say that the set
of whole numbers is not closed under the operation of subtraction.

• So, if we can find one example when the result does not belong to the set, it is
sufficient to say that closure is not a property of the set under the operation.
Properties of Operations

Identity elements
• The identity is a number if any arithmetic operations are used to combine an identity
with a number (), the end result will be .

• In Addition, the identity is zero ().

• In Multiplication, the identity is one ()

Properties of Operations

Inverse element
• The additive inverse of a number is its opposite number. If a number is added to its
additive inverse, the sum of both the numbers becomes zero. The simple rule is to
change the positive number to a negative number and vice versa.
• The following table illustrates a few examples of the additive inverse of some
numbers.
Properties of Operations

Inverse element
• The multiplicative inverse of a number is defined as a number that when multiplied
by the original number gives the product as 1. The multiplicative inverse of 'a' is
denoted by . In other words, when the product of two numbers is 1, they are said to be
multiplicative inverses of each other.
• The following table illustrates a few examples of the multiplicative inverse of some
numbers.
 Place Value and Value
• The Place Value of a digit in a numeral refers to the value of its position in the
number.

• Example: In number, ,
the place value of the digit
is millions,
3 is hundred thousands,
4 is ten thousands,
5 is thousands,
6 is hundreds,
2 is tens
1 is ones.
Place Value and Value

Place Value
• In the base ten number system, there are digits and the place values of the digits in a
number is expressed in powers of , starting with and increasing to , then and so on.
Our place value system is called a denary or base ten system.

• Numbers can be written in expanded notation to point out the place value of each
digit.
Place Value and Value

• Example: Write the number in expanded form.

• Example: Write the number in expanded form.

Place Value and Value

Value
• The value of a digit refers to its actual value. That is, the value of a digit is determined
by its location in a number, combining the digit with its place value.

• Example: Consider the number 325.

the value of the digit in the number is three hundred or
the value of the digit in the number is twenty or
the value of the digit in the number is five or .
 Recap
• Sets of Numbers – Numbers can be categorized into different sets; Natural numbers,
Whole numbers, Integers, Rational numbers, Irrational numbers and Real numbers.

• Types of Numbers
– Numbers can be identified as even or odd numbers, prime or composite numbers
and square numbers.
– Numbers have Multiples and Factors, where the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)
and Highest Common Factor (HCF) can be found to solve problems.

• Number Sequences – Numbers can be follow a pattern or sequence. They may follow
an arithmetic sequence where there is a common difference, an geometric sequence
where there is a common ratio or other sequences relating to square numbers or
triangular numbers.
Recap

• Properties of Operations
– Commutative and Associative properties hold for the operations Addition and
Multiplication.
– The Distributive Properties combines two operations, distributing multiplication or
division over addition or subtraction.
– The closure properties follows when two elements of the set are combined under an
operation, the result is also a member of the set.
– Identity Property identifies an element or identity when combined with a number
under the operation results in the same number.
– Inverse Property involves the opposite to the number in relation to addition and
multiplication.

• Place Value and Value – Each digit in a number has a place value and value related to
the position on the digit in the number.