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Biostatistics 2 Print

The document discusses frequency distributions, which are organized tabulations that simplify and present data for analysis. It explains the construction of frequency distribution tables, including regular and grouped distributions, and the use of graphs such as histograms and polygons to visualize data. Additionally, it covers concepts like relative frequency and the shapes of distributions, including symmetrical and skewed distributions.

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4 views17 pages

Biostatistics 2 Print

The document discusses frequency distributions, which are organized tabulations that simplify and present data for analysis. It explains the construction of frequency distribution tables, including regular and grouped distributions, and the use of graphs such as histograms and polygons to visualize data. Additionally, it covers concepts like relative frequency and the shapes of distributions, including symmetrical and skewed distributions.

Uploaded by

mohammedfirdous125
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Biostatistics

Frequency Distributions
2
Frequency Distributions ‫توزیع تناوب یا‬
‫تکرار‬
• After collecting data, the first task for a researcher is to
organize and simplify the data so that it is possible to get a
general overview of the results.

• This is the goal of descriptive statistical techniques.

• One method for simplifying and organizing data is to


construct a frequency distribution.
2
Frequency Distributions (cont.)

• A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation showing exactly


how many individuals are located in each category on the scale of
measurement. A frequency distribution presents an organized picture
of the entire set of scores, and it shows where each individual is
located relative to others in the distribution.

3
Frequency Distribution Tables
• A frequency distribution table consists of
at least two columns - one listing
categories on the scale of measurement (X)
and another for frequency (f).

• In the X column, values are listed from the


highest to lowest, without skipping any.

• The sum of the frequencies should equal N.

4
Frequency Distribution Tables (cont.)
• A third column can be used for the
proportion (p) for each category: p = f/N.
The sum of the p column should equal
1.00.
• A fourth column can display the
percentage of the distribution
corresponding to each X value. The
percentage is found by multiplying p by
100. The sum of the percentage column
is 100%.

5
Regular Frequency Distribution Grouped frequency
distribution Table
• When a frequency distribution table lists all of the
individual categories (X values) it is called a regular
frequency distribution.

• Sometimes, however, a set of scores covers a wide


range of values. In these situations, a list of all the X
values would be quite long - too long to be a “simple”
presentation of the data.

• To remedy this situation, a grouped frequency


6
distribution table is used.
Grouped Frequency Distribution (cont.)

• In a grouped table, the X column lists


groups of scores, called class intervals,
rather than individual values.
• These intervals all have the same width,
usually a simple number such as 2, 5, 10,
and so on.
• The interval width is selected so that the
table will have approximately ten intervals.

7
Frequency distribution graphs

• Frequency distribution graphs are useful because they show the entire
set of scores.

• At a glance, you can determine the highest score, the lowest score, and
where the scores are centered.

• The graph also shows whether the scores are clustered together or
scattered over a wide range.
8
Frequency Distribution Graphs
• In a frequency distribution
graph, the score categories (X
values) are listed on the X axis
and the frequencies are listed
on the Y axis.
• When the score categories
consist of numerical scores
from an interval or ratio scale,
the graph should be either a
histogram or a polygon.
9
Histograms
In a histogram, a bar is
centered above each score
(or class interval) so that the
height of the bar
corresponds to the
frequency.
Polygons

In a polygon, a dot is centered above


each score so that the height of the dot
corresponds to the frequency. The
dots are then connected by straight
lines. An additional line is drawn at
each end to bring the graph back to a
zero frequency.
Bar graphs
• When the score categories (X
values) are measurements from a
nominal or an ordinal scale, the
graph should be a bar graph.
• A bar graph is just like a
histogram except that gaps or
spaces are left between adjacent
bars.

12
Relative frequency
• Many populations are so large that it is
impossible to know the exact number of
individuals (frequency) for any specific
category.
• In these situations, population distributions
can be shown using relative frequency
instead of the absolute number of individuals
for each category. 13
Smooth curve
• If the scores in the population are
measured on an interval or ratio
scale, it is customary to present
the distribution as a smooth
curve rather than a jagged
histogram or polygon.
• The smooth curve emphasizes the
fact that the distribution is not
showing the exact frequency for
each category.
14
Shape
• A graph shows the shape of the distribution.
• A distribution is symmetrical if the left side of the graph is a mirror
image of the right side.
• One example of a symmetrical distribution is the bell-shaped normal
distribution.
• On the other hand, distributions are skewed when scores pile up on
one side of the distribution, leaving a "tail" of a few extreme values
on the other side.

15
Positively and Negatively Skewed
Distributions
• In a positively skewed distribution, the scores tend to
pile up on the left side of the distribution with the tail
tapering off to the right.
• In a negatively skewed distribution, the scores tend
to pile up on the right side and the tail points to the
left.

16

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