Part 2.
Production of Ferrochrome
(I&O)
2.1. Introduction of Ferrochrome Production
2.2. Introduction of I-P-O process model
2.3. Raw Materials and Products
2.4. Smelting Process in Submerged Arc Furnace
• Conventional SAF process
2.5. New Processes for Ferrochromium Alloy Production
• DC plasma furnace process
• Primus Process
• Outokumpu Process
2.5. Major operational Challenges of ferrochrome
production in SA
2.1. Main grades of Ferrochromium alloys, according to
ISO-standard 5448-81[1]
Grade %Cr %C %Si %P %S Fe%
Charge 53-58 5-8 3-6 <0.05 <0.05 Rest
Chrome 55 5 5 <0.05 <0.05
HC FeCr 45-70 4-10 0-10 <0.05 <0.05
High Carbon
Ferrochromium
MC FeCr 55-75 0.5-4 <1.5 <0.05 <0.05
Medium
Carbon
Ferrochromium
LC FeCr 55-95 0.01- <1.5 <0.03 <0.03
Low Carbon 0.5
Ferrochromium
•
2.2. Raw Materials
2.2.1. Chromium ore name:
– chromite ore/chrome ore/chromium ore
• Chemical formula:
– (FeMg)(FeCrAl)2O4
– (FeOMgO)(Fe2O3Cr2O3Al2O3)
• Mineral names (chromium ore)
Formulae FeCr2O4 FeAl2O4 FeFe2O4 MgCr2O4 MgAl2O4 MgFe2O4 FeO
Wustite
Name Chromite Hercynite Magnetite Magnesia- Spinel Magnesia- Fe2O3
chromite ferrite Hematite
Formulae FeCr2O4 FeAl2O4 FeFe2O4 MgCr2O4 MgAl2O4 MgFe2O4 FeO Fe2O3 Fe3O4
Wustite
Name Chromite Hercynite Magnetite Magnesia- Spinel Magnesia- Wustite Hematite Magnetite
chromite ferrite
• 2.2.2. Fluxes
• Quartzite
• Limestone
• Dolomite
• 2.2.2. Reductants
• Coke
• Char
• Anthracite
• Coal
• 2.2.3. Charge Chrome and Slag
•
2.2.1. Chrome ore
• Chrome ore grades
Ore type % Cr2O3 Cr/Fe ratio % SiO2
Metallurgical >46 >3 <10
Grade
Chemical >44 >1.5 <3.5
Grade
Refractory 30-40 2 – 2.5 6
Grade
2.2.1. Chromite ore
The main chromite deposits
Chromite ore Reserves Cr/Fe Deposit type
(million tones)
Bushweld, South Africa 1050 2.6 Stratiform
Great Dyke, Zimbabwe 550 3.2 Stratiform
Southern Ural, Russian 11 3.9 Stratiform
Kemi, Finland 10 2.6 Stratiform
Bahia, Brazil 7 2.2 Stratiform
India 7 2.2 Podiform
Turkey 5 2.2 Podiform
2.2.1. Chromite ore
Annual chromite World production (x1000 tones)
1910 1960 1970 1980 1990 1995
Country
South Africa 613 2207 3847 4618 5104
Kahzakstan 2400
Former USSR 21 647 2022 2450 3800
India 4 57 334 319 1050 1230
Turkey 11 672 525 399 836 800
Zimbabwe 6 420 574 554 573 631
Brazil 4 159 313 263 360
World Annual Chromite Ore
Usage
Usage of chromite resources/reserves in world market
Chromite
22.4 Mt
(100%) Chromium
Refractory and
Foundries (4%) chemicals (2%)
Ferrochrome
21.0 Mt (94%)
Scrap metal Stainless Steels
And special steels
(90%)
2.2.1. SA Chromite ore
Typical composition and size of SA Bushweld Chromite deposits
(Western Chrome Mines, -100+10 mm)
Element Wt-% Size, mm Wt-%
Cr2O3 38.81 -100+75 38.89
FeO 23.43 -75+25 42.64
SiO2 9.31 -25+15 9.37
MgO 10.3 -15+10 1.29
Al2O3 14.3 -10 7.81
Cr/Fe 1.46
2.2.2. SA Fluxes
• Quartzite Composition (-50+5 mm)
Element SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 FeO P
Wt-% 96.78 0.19 0.26 1.52 0.81 0.00
4
• Quartzite Screening
Size, mm -50+35 -35+25 -25+12 -12+6 -6
Wt-% 38.1 39.8 14.8 4 3.3
2.2.2. SA Fluxes
• Lime Composition (-50+5 mm)
Element SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 FeO rest
Wt-% 0.8 91.3 1.7 0.3 0.3
• Lime Screening
Size, mm +38 -38+27 -27+19 -19+13 -13+6 -6
Wt-% 9.6 37.4 29 13.6 8.2 2.2
2.2.2. SA Fluxes
• Dolomite Composition (-50+5 mm)
Element SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 FeO
Wt-% 1.6 30.2 20.1 0.7 1.1 rest
• Dolomite Screening
+100 -100+75 -75+50 -50+25 -25+8 -8
Size, mm
Wt-% 100 92 43 18 33 8.6
2.2.3. SA Reductants
• Anthracite Composition (-5+50 mm)
Element F,C Volatiles H2O Ash S P
Wt-% 79.3 7.8 2.8 12.9 0.86 0.01
• Anthracite Ash Composition
Element SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 FeO
Wt-% 6.87 0.2 0.19 3.71 0.79
• Anthracite Screening
Size, mm +19 -19+5 -5
Wt-% 26.4 68.6 5
2.2.3. SA Reductants
• Coal Composition
Element F,C Volatiles H2O Ash S P
Wt-% 53.6 28 5 15.9 0.4 0.01
• Coal Ash Composition
Element SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 FeO
Wt-% 9.1 0.7 0.3 4.8 0.24
• Coal Screening (-3+75 mm)
Size, mm -75 -50 -25 -10 -8 -3
Wt-% 100 68.5 52.5 21.4 11.4 5.1
2.2.3. SA Reductants
• Coke Composition
Element F,C Volatiles H2O Ash S P
Wt-% 82.0 0.8 11.0 16.7 0.7 0.01
• Coke Ash Composition
Element SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 Fe2O3
Wt-% 6.7 0.28 0.07 3.92 0.68
• Coke Screening (Vanderbijl, -3+75 mm)
Size, mm -75 -50 -25 -10 -8 -3
Wt-% 100 58.8 17.1 12.2 10.1 4.5
2.2.4. Charge Chrome and Slag of Sub Arc
Furnace
• Charge Chrome Composition (HC, 3% max Si)
Element Cr Fe Si C S P
Wt-% 51.49 36.95 2.9 6.85 0.04 0.01
• Slag Composition (including Met Cr 0.8%, Met Fe 3.2%)
Cr2O3 FeO SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3
Element
Wt-% 11.2 7.6 22.7 9.8 22.4 25.9
Met Fe Met Cr C S TiO2 MnO
Element
Wt-% 3.2 0.8 0.1 0.17 0.59 0.19
2.2.5. Charge Chrome Dust and Offgas
• Dust Composition
Element Cr2O3 FeO SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3
Wt-% 1.4 1.7 87.7 0.5 4.3 2.7
• Off Gas Composition (DC)
O2 N2 H2 CO CO2 H2O
Element
Wt-% 0.01 rest 16-28 45-84 0-5 2-3
2.2.1. SA Chromite Ore and Smelting
• SA Bushweld Chromite deposits
2.2.1. SA Bushweld Chromite
Deposits
Chrome Deposit in Bushveld
Igneous Complex
Bushveld Igneous Complex
Merensky Reef
Merensky Reef vs Bushveld Igneous Complex
• Hans Merensky
• In 1909 he visited the diamond fields of South
West Africa and controversially predicted that
diamonds would be found along the West coast
and south of the Orange River.
• In 1913 Merensky lost his entire fortune due to
the Depression, and was interned at a camp
near Pietermaritzburg.
• In 1924 he followed up the discovery of alluvial
platinum by A F Lombard on his farm in
Lydenburg[1] and discovered its source in the
Bushveld Igneous Complex which set him on
the road to financial recovery. This deposit
came eventually to be known as the Merensky
Reef, which contains 75 per cent of the world's
known platinum resources.[2]
• In 1926 diamonds were found at Alexander
Bay and Merensky received £1,250,000 for his
prospector's share.
• He established the Phosphate Development
Corporation Ltd. - FOSKOR - to manage the
extraction of phosphates at Phalaborwa.
Reference
1. Silk M H: World Chromite Resources and ferrochromium production;
Mintek Special buplication No. 11, 1988; ISBN 0 86999 826 9
2. Harben P W, Kuzvart M: Global Geology, Industrial Minerals
Information Ltd. Metal Bulletin PLC, London 1997, pp97-107
3. X. Pan, 19-20 March 2014, Chrome ores on ferrochrome smelting,
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Mechanical,
Electronics and Mechatronics Engineering (ICMEME 2014), Abu
Dhabi, UAE, pp45-49
4. X. Pan, Effect of reductant on energy consumption of ferrochrome
smelting, Proceedings of International Ferroalloy Congress, May 30
to 3 June 2015, Kiev, Ukraine, pp382-389
5. X. Pan, Teaching and learning of ferroalloy production using process
simulation, Proceedings of International Ferroalloy Congress, May
30 to 3 June 2015, Kiev, Ukraine processes, pp619-625
