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Lecture Research Method4

The document discusses various sampling methods used in research, emphasizing the importance of selecting a representative sample from a population due to resource constraints. It outlines types of sampling, including probability (random) and non-probability samples, and details specific methods such as simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Additionally, it highlights the sampling process, factors influencing representativeness, and the distinction between strata and clusters.

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5 views29 pages

Lecture Research Method4

The document discusses various sampling methods used in research, emphasizing the importance of selecting a representative sample from a population due to resource constraints. It outlines types of sampling, including probability (random) and non-probability samples, and details specific methods such as simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Additionally, it highlights the sampling process, factors influencing representativeness, and the distinction between strata and clusters.

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nowelbax
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Research Methods

By
Sangwani Chavula
SAMPLING
• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about
that population”
• Why sample?
– Becoz of limited Resources (time, money) and
reduce workload
– Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
• The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn . eg
– Registrar’s office
– Class rosters
– Must assess sampling frame errors
3 factors that influence sample
representativeness
• Sampling procedure
• Sample size
• Participation (response)
When might you sample the entire population?
• When your population is very small
• When you have extensive resources
• When you don’t expect a very high response
STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION
Types of Samples
• Probability (Random) Samples
– Simple random sample
– Systematic random sample
– Stratified random sample
– Multistage sample
– Multiphase sample
– Cluster sample
• Non-Probability Samples
– Convenience sample
– Purposive sample
– Quota
• With probability sampling, all elements (e.g.,
persons, households) in the population have some
opportunity of being included in the sample, and the
mathematical probability that any one of them will
be selected can be calculated.
• With nonprobability sampling, in contrast, population
elements are selected on the basis of their
availability (e.g., because they volunteered) or
because of the researcher's personal judgment that
they are representative.
– The consequence is that an unknown portion of the
population is excluded (e.g., those who did not volunteer).
Process
• The sampling process comprises several stages:
– Defining the population of concern
– Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or
events possible to measure
– Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
– Determining the sample size
– Implementing the sampling plan
– Sampling and data collecting
– Reviewing the sampling process
Population definition
• A population can be defined as including
all people or items with the
characteristic one wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough
time or money to gather information
from everyone or everything in a
population, the goal becomes finding a
representative sample (or subset) of
that population.
• Note also that the population from which the
sample is drawn may not be the same as the
population about which we actually want
information.
- Often there is large but not complete
overlap between these two groups due to
frame issues etc .
• Sometimes they may be entirely separate -
for instance, we might study rats in order to
get a better understanding of human health,
or we might study records from people born
in 2008 in order to make predictions about
people born in 2009.
SAMPLING FRAME
• The sampling frame must be
representative of the population
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A probability sampling scheme is
one in which every unit in the
population has a chance (greater
than zero) of being selected in the
sample, and this probability can be
accurately determined.
• When every element in the
population does have the same
probability of selection, this is known
as an 'equal probability of selection'
(EPS) design. Such designs are also
referred to as 'self-weighting'
because all sampled units are given
the same weight.
Sampling methods

• Simple random sampling


• Stratified sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Cluster sampling

1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING


• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done
by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine
which units are to be selected.
• Estimates are easy to calculate.
• Simple random sampling is always an
EPS design, but not all EPS designs are
simple random sampling.

Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method
impracticable.
• Minority subgroups of interest in
population may not be present in
sample in sufficient numbers for study.
2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Systematic sampling relies on
arranging the target population
according to some ordering scheme
and then selecting elements at
regular intervals through that
ordered list.
• Systematic sampling involves a
random start and then proceeds with
the selection of every kth element
from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size).
• It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is
instead randomly chosen from within the
first to the kth element in the list.

• A simple example would be to select every


10th name from the telephone directory
(an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').
• As described above, systematic
sampling is an EPS method, because all
elements have the same probability of
selection (in the example given, one in
ten).
• It is not 'simple random sampling'
because different subsets of the same
size have different selection probabilities
- e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a
one-in-ten probability of selection, but
the set {4,13,24,34,...} has zero
probability of selection.
ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified
easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference
population
DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in
population coincides with that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from
one survey.
3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
• Where population embraces a
number of distinct categories, the
frame can be organized into separate
"strata." Each stratum is then
sampled as an independent sub-
population, out of which individual
elements can be randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same
chance of being selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all
strata ensures proportionate
representation in the sample.
• Adequate representation of minority
subgroups of interest can be ensured
by stratification & varying sampling
fraction between strata as required.
• Finally, since each stratum is treated
as an independent population,
different sampling approaches can be
applied to different strata.
Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

• First, sampling frame of entire population


has to be prepared separately for each
stratum

• Second, when examining multiple criteria,


stratifying variables may be related to
some, but not to others, further
complicating the design, and potentially
reducing the utility of the strata.
• Finally, in some cases (such as designs
with a large number of strata, or those
with a specified minimum sample size per
group), stratified sampling can potentially
require a larger sample than would other
methods
» Draw a sample from each stratum
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING

• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage


sampling' .
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous
units, usually based on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.
Advantages :
– Cuts down on the cost of preparing a
sampling frame.
– This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
Disadvantages:
- sampling error is higher for a
simple random sample of same size.
– Often used to evaluate vaccination
coverage in EPI ( expanded program
ion Immunization)
Identification of clusters

– List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with


their population falling in target area under study.
– Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30,
this gives sampling interval.
– Select a random no. less than or equal to
sampling interval having same no. of digits. This
forms 1st cluster.
– Random no.+ sampling interval = population of
2nd cluster.
– Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
– Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling
interval
Two types of cluster sampling
methods.
One-stage sampling. All of the
elements within selected clusters are
included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of
elements within selected clusters are
randomly selected for inclusion in the
sample.
Difference Between Strata and
Clusters

• Although strata and clusters are both non-


overlapping subsets of the population,
they differ in several ways.
• All strata are represented in the sample;
but only a subset of clusters are in the
sample.
• With stratified sampling, the best survey
results occur when elements within strata
are internally homogeneous. However,
with cluster sampling, the best results
occur when elements within clusters are
internally heterogeneous

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