INTRODUCTION

TO
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer Architecture
Hardware
• Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that
constitutes a computer system.
• Example: monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard
drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound cards,
memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical
objects that can be touched.
Software
• Computer software, or simply software, also known
as computer programs, is the non-tangible component
of computers.
• It
represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a
computer system and make the hardware run.
• Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is
the physical component of computers.
• Onemajor example is operating system. All computers require an
operating system. E.g. DOS ( Disk operating System), Windows,
Linux, Mac etc.
Types of Software
• System Software
• To control operation and extend the processing capabilities of
computer system.
• e.g. Operating System, Compiler, Assembler, etc.

• Application Software
• Designed for user specific need.
• General purpose
• e.g. MS Office, Excel etc.
• Specific purpose
• Custom built according to requirement of user.
System Software
• Operating System
• Compiler : translates high level language to object code
• Assembler : translates assembly to machine language
• Loader : which loads OS part and object program into main memory for execution
purpose. E.g. bootstrap loader.
• Linker : which binds code of source and library file to make executable programs.
• Editor : used to write a program.
• Translator : which converts one language into other. (Compiler, Assembler,
Interpreter)
• Macro processor : Replace symbolic meaning into equivalent code. Also, called pre-
processor.
• Interpreter : translates line by line high level language into machine language.
Input Devices
• Accept
data and instructions from the user or from another
computer system.
• Example: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Mike

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Output Devices
Return Processed data back to the user or other computer system
Example: Printer, Monitor, Speaker

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• A central processing unit (CPU) is the hardware within a computer that
carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic
arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system.
• CPU is a combination of ALU (arithmetic logic unit) and CU (Control Unit).
• ALU
• It performs all arithmetic calculations and takes logical decision.
• CU
• It manages and coordinates operations of all other components of computer
system.
• It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and output
devices how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor.
Bus and System Bus
• Incomputer architecture, a bus is a communication system that
transfers data between components inside a computer, or between
computers.
• Thisexpression covers all related hardware components (wire,
optical fiber, etc.) and software, including communication
protocols.
• Can be parallel or serial.
Register
• Registers
are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept,
store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often
termed as Processor registers.
•A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or
any data (such as bit sequence or individual characters).
• The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and
a register for holding a memory address. The register holding the
memory location is used to calculate the address of the next
instruction after the execution of the current instruction is
completed.
Types of Registers
Register Symbol Number of Bits Function
Holds memory
Data register DR 16
operand
Holds address for
Address register AR 12
the memory
Accumulator AC 16 Processor register
Holds instruction
Instruction register IR 16
code
Holds address of
Program counter PC 12
the instruction
Holds temporary
Temporary register TR 16
data
Carries input
Input register INPR 8
character
Memory Unit
• Storage unit for processing data and information.
• Holds instructions and data needed for programs that are
currently running
• Two types of storage:
• Primary/Main storage
• Secondary storage
Classification of Main Memory
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
1. Stores current program or data.
2. Stores temporary data of current program.
3. Less space in comparison to secondary storage.
4. Volatile (data losses on power off)
5. Comparatively more expensive.
6. Fast in operation.

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read only Memory(ROM)
• ROM is used for storing programs that are PERMANENTLY
resident in the computer. The ROM portion of main memory is
needed for storing an initial program called bootstrap loader,
witch is to start the computer software operating when power is
turned on
RAM Chip
ROM Chip
Secondary Memory
•A nonvolatile storage medium
• Contents retained while power is off
• Hard disk drives are most common
• Records data magnetically on a circular disk
• Provides fast access to large amounts of data

• USB flash memory devices

• High capacity device plugs into USB port
• Portable, reliable, and fits easily in a pocket

• e.g. Hard disk (HDD), CD, DVD, Pen Drive, Removable hard disk
Memory Hierarchy
Classification of programming
languages
• Machine or Low level language
• Assembly language
• High level language

• Note: Refer the document “

Classification of Programming Languages”.
A Language processing System
Pre-processor
Source program might be taking help
Different from other program, other modules,
Software residing outside, that's why first handled
by pre-processor, which will import or
include other program ,
or program segment or program
module, to have
complete environment so that program
can run,

Expand some shorthand's: macros

Pre-processor convert program in
different source program
In c Language # is pre-processor,
Compiler:
A Language processing System
Linker :
Linker will link each and every module
Different of program to other module Whose
Software definition are written outside
So that program become ultimately an
executable one. It also create header
to the target program so that loader
can easily
load front the address given in the
header

When the program is asked for the

execution
Loader will check free memory block or
holes where it can load the program.
And can have its smooth execution.
Summary of characteristics of
languages
Sr. Language Characteristics
No

1. Machine Language 1. Machine dependent

2. Represented as 0s and 1s.

2. Assembly 1. Machine dependent

Language 2. Uses mnemonics
3. 1 to 1 language i.e. for assembly language
instruction generated
3. High-level 1. Machine independent
Language 2. Uses instructions which seem English – like.
3. 1 to many language i.e. for high level instruction,
many machine language generated (OS specific).
Compiler
• Compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source
code written in a programming language (the source language) into another
computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object
code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create
an executable program.
• The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from
a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly
language or machine code).
• If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is
different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is known as a cross-
compiler.
• A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is
a decompiler.
• A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-to-
source compiler.
Interpreter
A translating program that translates and executes the statements
in sequence
• Assembler or compiler produce machine code as output, which is then
executed in a separate step i.e. translates line by line conversion of
high level language into low level programs.
• An interpreter translates a statement and then immediately executes
the statement
• Interpreters can be viewed as simulators

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Assembler
• Anassembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions
(assembly language) and converts them into a pattern of bits
(machine language) that the computer's processor can use to
perform its basic operations.
• e.g. Microprocessor 8085, 8088.
• Instruction: ADD R1, R2

• Note: Refer the document “

compiler_assembler_linker_loader”.
Compiler vs. Interpreter
Sr. Particular Compiler Interpreter
No.
1. Scheme Compiler scans the whole Interpreter scans the program
program at a time and lists line by line and stop scanning
out error if any. whenever error occurs.
2. Manner Compiler converts the whole Interpreter converts the source
source code into object code programs.
at a time.
3. Source After compilation, source code For every execution run,
Code is not required. source is required.
4. Speed Execution is faster Execution is slower.
5. Object The object code is generated Generates object code for
Code when the program is error each line immediately if it is
free. error free.
6. Memory Requires more memory. Requires less memory.
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