Crop and animal improvement
Principles of Genetics
Mukamwe NN
Cell :0771618002
Introduction
Dfn of genetics
bio, heredity, variation. Infor organisation, expression and
transmission
One of the important life functions of living things is their ability
to reproduce.
Reproduction depends on the cell.
Cells reproduce in order to make identical copies of themselves.
1.0
How Body Cells Reproduce
Cells reproduce through a continuous sequence of
growth and division called the cell cycle
There are two main phases:
1. Growth Phase
2. Division Phase
The growth stage, also called interphase, is a stage
in which the cell produces new molecules
Interphase
Three Parts of Interphase:
1. G1 (gap 1)Phase
2. S Phase
DNA made and copied
3. G2 (gap 2)Phase
Division Phase
Two Processes involved in cell division
1. Mitosis (pronouced “my-toe-sis”)
Division of the nucleus (including DNA)
2. Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
Overall length of the cell cycle varies depending
on the species and where it is living
See pg. 461 Figure 14.3
Function of Mitosis
Cells which go through the process of mitosis
divide to produce two new cells
This allows an organism to:
Grow
Regenerate (repair) damaged tissues or body parts
Replace malfunctioning cells
Replace dead cells
Mitosis…
Occurs in an organism’s somatic (body) cells, not
sex cells
New cells are identical copies of the parent cell
Maintains the number of chromosomes from cell
to cell (ie. 46 in humans)
Each parent cell divides producing two new
daughter cells that are genetically identical to the
parent cell
Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis is divided into four phases:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Upon completion of mitosis the daughter cells enter interphase
before the cycle repeats itself
Each of these phases is unique and is characterized by a particular
arrangement of the chromosomes within the cell and by the
appearance and disappearance of certain cell structures.
1. Prophase
In this phase, chromatin in the cell’s nucleus
forms thick, condensed structures called
chromosomes.
A chromosome is made up of two sister
chromatids which are held together by a
structure called a centromere
Each sister chromatid contains an identical
copy of the genetic information or DNA.
Other events which occur during this stage
are:
1. The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus
disappear.
2. The centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the
cell.
3. Spindle fibers start to form from each centriole.
The cell is now ready to enter the second stage
of mitosis called metaphase.
2. Metaphase
The spindle fibers attach to the
centromere of the chromosomes
and pull the chromosomes to the
center or equator of the cell.
Spindle fibers from each cell
pole then attach to the sister
chromatids.
The cell is now ready to enter
the third stage of mitosis called
anaphase.
3. Anaphase
In this stage the centromere
splits apart and the sister
chromatids are pulled to
opposite poles of the cell by the
spindle fibers.
The cell is now ready to enter
the fourth stage of mitosis called
telophase.
4. Telophase
This is the last phase of mitosis.
The chromatids reach the opposite poles
of the cell.
The chromatids, now called
chromosomes, begin to unwind and form
into chromatin again.
The spindle fibers break down and
disappear.
The nucleolus reappears.
A nuclear membrane forms around the
chromatin.
The cell is now ready to divide into two
new cells, a process called cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis
Once the cell has completed the four stages of
mitosis, the cell now separates its cytoplasm and
forms two new daughter cells.
After cytokinesis is completed, two new daughter
are formed which are identical to the parent cell.
At this point cell division is complete.
1.1 How Reproductive cells are Produced
The Function of Meiosis (“my-oh-sis”)
Meiosis is a special type of cell division which occurs in reproductive organs.
Meiosis produces the sex cells which are called gametes.
In males the gametes are sperm cells
In females the gametes are the egg cells.
Gamete cells are called haploid cells.
This means that they contain only half the number of chromosomes as a number body cell.
Haploid cells are represented by the letter n .
Somatic cells are called diploid cells.
This means they contain the normal number of chromosomes.
Diploid cells are represented by 2n.
A normal body cell in humans contains 46 chromosomes. A sperm or an egg will contain only 23
chromosomes.
Meiosis is referred to as reduction - division.
The first part of meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid so that the gametes which
are produced will only contain 23 chromosomes.
Of these 23, 22 are autosomes (body chromosomes) and one is a sex chromosome (X or Y). A female has
two X chromosomes (XX) and a male has an X and a Y chromosome (XY).
Phases of Meiosis
The phases of meiosis are very similar to the
phases of mitosis. However, meiosis involves
two sequences of phases.
The sequence of phases for meiosis
Interphase
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
Interphase
The chromosomes replicate
during this phase.
Each chromosome is made up
of two sister chromatids
joined at the center by a
centromere.
Quick Terminology Reminder
Chromatin
DNA in its typical uncondensed form during
interphase
Chromatids
Chromatin condenses forming chromatids
Chromosomes
Two sister chromatids held together by a
centromere
Prophase I
Pairs of chromosomes group
together.
The pairs are called homologous
chromosomes.
Two pairs group together and
we call this a tetrad.
A tetrad is a group of four
chromosomes.
Crossing over may occur,
where chromosomes exchange
genetic information
Crossing Over
Metaphase I
The tetrads line up
across the equator of
the cell.
Spindle fibers attach to
the centromere of each
pair of chromosomes.
Anaphase I
Pairs of homologous
chromosomes are
pulled to opposite
poles of the cell by the
spindle fibers.
Telophase I
Telophase I does not occur in all
cells.
If telophase I does not occur, the
cell moves into the second part of
meiosis which we call meiosis II.
If telophase does occur the
following events take place:
1. Chromosomes uncoil to form
chromatin.
2. Spindle fibers disappear.
3. The cytoplasm divides.
4. The nuclear membrane forms around
each group ofchromosomes and two
cells are formed.
Meiosis II
The stages of meiosis II
are identical to mitosis
At the end of meiosis II,
four cells are produced.
These four daughter cells
will develop into
gametes in animals and
either gametes or spores
in plants.
See Fig. 14.14 on pg 472
Meiosis vs. Mitosis
Figure 14.17 is a
summary of the major
events involved in both
meiosis and mitosis.
The final product of
mitosis is two daughter
cells which are
genetically identical to
the parent cell.
The final product of
meiosis is four daughter
cells which are
genetically unique or
different from the parent
cell.
Gamete formation
The purpose of meiosis In males, the gamete
is to produce gametes or sperm is produced and
sex cells this is called
spermatogenesis
spermato = sperm
The production of
genesis = creation
gametes by meiosis is
called gametogenesis In females, the gamete
gameto = sex cell egg is produced and this
genesis = creation is called oogenesis
oo = eggs (or oocyte)
genesis = creation
Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis
In males, meiosis occurs in the male In females, meiosis occurs in the female
reproductive organ called the testes. reproductive organs called the ovaries.
The process starts with a diploid cell called The process starts with a diploid cell called
the spermatogonim. the oogonium.
The oogonium goes through the stages of
The spermatogonium goes through the
stages of meiosis I and meiosis II and the meiosis I and meiosis II and the final product
final product is four haploid sperm cells. is four haploid cells , but only one cell
survives. We call this cell the ovum or egg.
Each sperm contains two parts: The production of eggs or ova in human
a head and tail. females continues from the start of puberty
until menopause which will occur between
Some species produce sperm continually the ages of 40 and 50.
(humans) while other species only produce
sperm during breeding season (migratory There are a number of differences between
birds). the sperm and eggs which are produced by
meiosis.
See Table 14.2, P. 478
Gametogenesis
