Advanced Database

Chapter 6:
Distributed Databases and Client-
Server Architectures
Outline
 Distributed Database Concepts
 Data Fragmentation, Replication and Allocation
 Types of Distributed Database Systems
 Query Processing in Distributed Databases
 Concurrency Control and Recovery
 Client-Server Architecture

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Distributed Database Concepts
 A distributed database (DDB) is a collection of
multiple logically related databases distributed over a
computer network.
 A transaction can be executed by multiple

networked computers in a unified manner

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Distributed Database System
 Advantages
 Management of distributed data with different

levels of transparency:

This refers to the physical placement of data
(files, relations, etc.) which is not known to the
user (distribution transparency).

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Distributed Database System(cont…)
 Example:

 EMPLOYEE, PROJECT and WORKS_ON tables may

be fragmented horizontally and stored with possible
replication as shown below:

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Distributed Database System(cont…)
 Advantages (cont…)

Replication transparency:

It allows to store copies of a data at multiple sites
for better availability.

Fragmentation transparency:

Allows to fragment a relation horizontally (create
a subset of tuples of a relation) or vertically (create
a subset of columns of a relation)

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Distributed Database System(cont…)
 Advantages (cont...)

 Increased availability:


Availability is the probability that the system is
continuously available (usable or accessible)
during a time interval.

A distributed database system has multiple nodes
(computers) and if one fails then others are
available to do the job.

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Distributed Database System(cont…)
 Other Advantages (cont…)
 Improved performance:


A distributed DBMS fragments the database to
keep data closer to where it is needed most

This reduces data management overhead (access
and modification time) significantly
 Easier expansion (scalability):


Refers to expansion of the system in terms of
adding more data, increasing database sizes or
adding more processors

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Data Fragmentation, Replication
and Allocation
 Data Fragmentation
 Split a relation into logically related and correct parts.

A relation can be fragmented in three ways:

-Horizontal Fragmentation -
Vertical Fragmentation
-Mixed (hybrid) Fragmentation
 Horizontal fragmentation
 It is a horizontal subset of a relation which contain

those of tuples which satisfy selection conditions.

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Data Fragmentation, Replication and
Allocation(cont…)
 Vertical fragmentation
 It is a subset of a relation which is created by a

subset of columns. Thus, a vertical fragment of a

relation will contain values of selected columns.
 Because there is no condition for creating a vertical

fragment, each fragment must include the primary

key attribute of the parent relation Employee.

In this way all vertical fragments of a relation
are connected.

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cont.….
 Mixed (Hybrid) fragmentation
 A combination of Vertical fragmentation and

Horizontal fragmentation
 This is achieved by SELECT-PROJECT operations.

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Data Replication and Allocation
Data Replication refers the distribution of whole or
part of the data to a number of sites
 Useful in improving availability of data & Improve

performance of global queries since the result of

such query can be obtained from any one site
 In full replication, the entire database is replicated

and in partial replication some selected part is

replicated to some of the sites.

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Data Replication and Allocation(cont…)
Data Replication and allocation
 The disadvantage of full replication is that it can slow

down update operation since a single logical update

must be performed on every copy of the database to
keep the copies consistent
 Each fragment must be assigned to a particular site in the

distributed system. This process is called data

distribution (or data allocation).

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Types of Distributed Database Systems
 Homogeneous Window
Site 5 Unix
 All sites of the
Oracle Site 1
database system Window
Oracle

have identical Site 4 Communications

network
setup, i.e., same
database system Oracle
software. Site 3 Site 2
Linux Oracle Linux Oracle

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Types of Distributed Database Systems
 Heterogeneous
 Federated: Each site may run different database

system but the data access is managed through a single

conceptual schema.
Object Unix Relational
Oriented Site 5 Unix
Site 1
Hierarchical
Window
Site 4 Communications
network

Network
Object DBMS
Oriented Site 3 Site 2 Relational
Linux Linux

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Types of Distributed Database Systems
 The type of heterogeneity present in FDBSs may arise
from several sources:
 Differences in data models:


Relational, Objected oriented, hierarchical, network,
etc.
 Differences in constraints:


Each site may have their own data accessing and
processing constraints.
 Differences in query language:


Even with the data model, the language and their
version may vary. SQL has multiple versions.

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 Query Processing in Distributed
Databases
 Issues

Cost of transferring data (files and results) over the
network.

This cost is usually high. So, some optimization is
necessary.
 Example: Suppose we have the Employee relation at site 1
and Department relation at Site 2
Employee at site 1. 10,000 rows. Row size = 100 bytes.

This means, table size = 106 bytes.

Department at Site 2. 100 rows. Row size = 35 bytes.

This means, table size = 3,500 bytes.
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Query Processing in Distributed
Databases (cont…)
 Issues (cont…)
 Query Q : For each employee, retrieve employee name and

department name Where the employee works.

 Q: Fname,Lname,Dname (EmployeeDno = Dnumber Department)

Employee Fname Minit Lname SSN Bdate Address Sex Slary Superssn Dno

Department Dname Dnumber Mgrssn Mgrstartdate

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Query Processing in Distributed
Databases (cont…)
 Result
 If every employee is related to a department, the result

of this query will have 10,000 tuples

 Suppose that each result tuple is 40 bytes long. The

query is submitted at site 3 and the result is sent to this

site: Query result size = 40 * 10,000 = 400,000 bytes.
 Suppose that Employee and Department relations are

not present at site 3 Employee

Site 1

Site 2 Site 3
Department

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Query Processing in Distributed
Databases (cont…)
 Strategies (Available options):
1. Transfer Employee and Department to site 3.

Total transfer bytes = 1,000,000 + 3500 = 1,003,500
bytes.
2. Transfer Employee to site 2, execute join at site 2 and
send the result to site 3.

Total transfer size = 1,000,000 + 400,000 = 1,400,000
bytes.
3. Transfer Department relation to site 1, execute the join at
site 1, and send the result to site 3

Total bytes transferred = 3500 + 400,000 = 403,500
bytes.
 Optimization criteria: minimizing data transfer.
 Preferred strategy: strategy 3.

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Query Processing in Distributed
Databases (cont…)
 Now suppose the result site is 2.
 Possible strategies :
1. Transfer Employee relation to site 2, execute the
query and present the result to the user at site 2

Total transfer size = 1,000,000 bytes for Q.
2. Transfer Department relation to site 1, execute join
at site 1 and send the result back to site 2

Total transfer size for Q:
 3500 +400,000 = 403,500 bytes

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Concurrency Control and Recovery
 Distributed Databases encounter a number of
concurrency control and recovery problems which are
not present in centralized databases.
 Some of these problems are listed below:
 Dealing with multiple copies of data items

 Failure of individual sites

 Communication link failure

 Distributed commit

 Distributed deadlock

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Concurrency Control and Recovery
(cont…)
 Details
 Dealing with multiple copies of data items:


The concurrency control must maintain global
consistency.

Likewise, the recovery mechanism must recover all
copies and maintain consistency after recovery.
 Failure of individual sites:


Database availability must not be affected due to the
failure of one or two sites and the recovery scheme
must recover them before they are available for use.

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Concurrency Control and
Recovery (cont…)
 (Details….)
 Communication link failure:
 This failure may create network partition which

would affect database availability even though all

database sites may be running.
 Distributed commit:
 Problems can arise with transactions that is

accessing databases stored on multiple sites if some

sites fail during the commit process . The 2 phase
commit is used to deal with this problem

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Concurrency Control and
Recovery (cont…)
 (Details….)
 Distributed deadlock:
 Since transactions are processed at multiple sites,

two or more sites may get involved in deadlock.

This must be resolved in a distributed manner.

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Concurrency Control and
Recovery (cont…)
 Distributed Concurrency control
 Primary site technique: A single site is assigned

as a primary site which serves as a coordinator for

transaction management.

Primary site
Site 5
Site 1

Site 4 Communications neteork

Site 3 Site 2

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Concurrency Control and
Recovery
 Transaction management:
 Concurrency control and commit are managed by

this site
 All locks are kept at that site and all requests for

locking or unlocking are sent there

 In two phase locking, this site manages locking and

releasing of data items

 If all transactions follow two-phase policy at all

sites, then serializability is guaranteed

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Concurrency Control and
Recovery (cont…)
 Advantages:

It is an extension to the centralized two phase
locking and hence simple to Implement and
manage

Data items are locked only at one site but they
can be accessed at any site at which they reside
 Disadvantages:

All transaction management activities go to
primary site which is likely to overload the site.

If the primary site fails, the entire system is
inaccessible
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Concurrency Control and
Recovery (cont…)
 Primary site with backup site
 To aid recovery, a backup site is designated which

behaves as a shadow of primary site.

 In case of primary site failure, backup site can act

as primary site.

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Client-Server Database Architecture
 It consists of clients running client software, a set of
servers which provide all database functionalities and
a reliable communication infrastructure.

Server 1 Client 1

Client 2

Server 2 Client 3

Server n Client n

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Client-Server Database Architecture
 Server: is responsible for local data management at a
site, much like centralized DBMS software.
 Client: is responsible for most of the distribution
function; it accesses data distribution information from
the DBMS catalog and processes all requests that
require access to more than one site.
 The communication software manages communication
among clients and servers

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Client-Server Database Architecture
 The processing of a SQL queries goes as follows:
 Client parses a user query and decomposes it into a

number of independent sub-queries.

 Each server processes its query and sends the result

to the client.
 The client combines the results of sub queries and

produces the final result.

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 Thank you….
 Question?

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