12.

Python - Dictionary
• A dictionary is mutable and is another container type that can
store any number of Python objects, including other container
types.
• Dictionaries consist of pairs (called items) of keys and their
corresponding values.
• Python dictionaries are also known as associative arrays or hash
tables. The general syntax of a dictionary is as follows:
dict = {'Alice': '2341', 'Beth': '9102', 'Cecil':
'3258'}
• You can create dictionary in the following way as well:
dict1 = { 'abc': 456 };
dict2 = { 'abc': 123, 98.6: 37 };
• Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are
separated by commas, and the whole thing is enclosed in curly
braces. An empty dictionary without any items is written with just
two curly braces, like this: {}.
Accessing Values in
Dictionary:
• To access dictionary elements, you use the familiar square
brackets along with the key to obtain its value:
• Example:
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
• This will produce following result:
dict['Name']: Zara
dict['Age']: 7
• If we attempt to access a data item with a key which is not
part of the dictionary, we get an error as follows:
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
• This will produce following result:
dict['Zara']:
Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line
4, in <module> print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
KeyError: 'Alice'
Updating Dictionary:
• You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or item (i.e., a
key-value pair), modifying an existing entry, or deleting an
existing entry as shown below:
• Example:
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
dict['Age'] = 8; # update existing entry
dict['School'] = "DPS School"; # Add new entry
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
print "dict['School']: ", dict['School'];
• This will produce following result:
dict['Age']: 8
dict['School']: DPS School
Delete Dictionary Elements:
• You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the
entire contents of a dictionary. You can also delete entire dictionary in
a single operation.
• To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement:
• Example:
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
del dict['Name']; # remove entry with key 'Name’
dict.clear(); # remove all entries in dict
del dict ; # delete entire dictionary
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
print "dict['School']: ", dict['School'];
• This will produce following result. Note an exception raised, this is
because after del dict dictionary does not exist any more:
dict['Age']:
Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 8, in <module>
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
TypeError: 'type' object is unsubscriptable
• Note: del() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Properties of Dictionary Keys:
• Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary
Python object, either standard objects or user-defined objects.
However, same is not true for the keys.
• There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys:
• (a) More than one entry per key not allowed. Which means no
duplicate key is allowed. When duplicate keys encountered during
assignment, the last assignment wins.
• Example:
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name’: ‘Soham’};
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];
• This will produce following result:
dict['Name’]: Soham
• (b) Keys must be immutable. Which means you can use
strings, numbers, or tuples as dictionary keys but
something like ['key'] is not allowed.
• Example:
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];
• This will produce following result. Note an exception raised:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 3, in <module> dict = {['Name']:
'Zara', 'Age': 7};
TypeError: list objects are unhashable
Built-in Dictionary Functions &
Methods:
SN Function with Description
1 cmp(dict1, dict2)
Compares elements of both dict.
2 len(dict)
Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the
number of items in the dictionary.
3 str(dict)
Produces a printable string representation of a dictionary
4 type(variable)
Returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary
then it would return a dictionary type.
SN Methods with Description
1 dict.clear()
Removes all elements of dictionary dict
2 dict.copy()
Returns a shallow copy of dictionary dict
2 dict.fromkeys()
Create a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value.
3 dict.get(key, default=None)
For key key, returns value or default if key not in dictionary
4 dict.has_key(key)
Returns true if key in dictionary dict, false otherwise
5 dict.items()
Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs
6 dict.keys()
Returns list of dictionary dict's keys
7 dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict
8 dict.update(dict2)
Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict
9 dict.values()
Returns list of dictionary dict2's values
• seq = ('name', 'age', 'gender’)
• dict = dict.fromkeys(seq)
• print ("New Dictionary :“,dict)

• dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

• dict2 = dict1.copy()
• print ("New Dictionary : " ,dict2)
13. Python - Date and Time
• What is Tick?
• Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds.
Particular instants in time are expressed in seconds since
12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch).
• Example:
import time; # This is required to include time module.
ticks = time.time()
print "Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1,
1970:", ticks
• This would produce a result something as follows:
Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:
7186862.73399
• Date arithmetic is easy to do with ticks. However, dates before
the epoch cannot be represented in this form. Dates in the far
future also cannot be represented this way - the cutoff point is
sometime in 2038 for UNIX and Windows.
What is TimeTuple?
• Many of Python's time functions handle time as a tuple of 9
numbers, as shown below:

Index Field Values

0 4-digit year 2008

1 Month 1 to 12

2 Day 1 to 31

3 Hour 0 to 23

4 Minute 0 to 59

5 Second 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)

6 Day of Week 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)

7 Day of year 1 to 366 (Julian day)

8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST

The above tuple is equivalent to struct_time structure. This
structure has following attributes:
Index Attributes Values
0 tm_year 2008

1 tm_mon 1 to 12

2 tm_mday 1 to 31

3 tm_hour 0 to 23

4 tm_min 0 to 59

5 tm_sec 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)

6 tm_wday 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)

7 tm_yday 1 to 366 (Julian day)

8 tm_isdst -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST

Example I: Getting current time -:
• To translate a time instant from a seconds since the epoch
floating-point value into a time-tuple, pass the floating-
point value to a function (e.g., localtime) that returns a
time-tuple with all nine items valid:
import time;
localtime = time.localtime(time.time())
print "Local current time :", localtime
• This would produce following result which could be
formatted in any other presentable form:
Local current time :
time.struct_time(tm_year=2011, tm_mon=10, tm_mday=8,
tm_hour=16, tm_min=17, tm_sec=51, tm_wday=5,
tm_yday=281, tm_isdst=1)
• Example II: Getting formatted time -:
• You can format any time as per your requirement, but
simple method to get time in readable format is asctime():
import time;
localtime =
time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )
print "Local current time :", localtime
• This would produce following result:
Local current time : Sat Oct 08 16:22:08 2011
Example III: Getting calendar for a month -:
• The calendar module gives a wide range of methods to
play with yearly and monthly calendars. Here we print a
calendar for a given month ( Jan 2008 ):
import calendar
cal = calendar.month(2008, 1)
print "Here is the calendar:"
print cal;
• This would produce following result:
Here is the calendar:
October 2011
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31
The time Module:
SN Function with Description
1 time.altzone
The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is
defined. This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in
Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if daylight is nonzero.
2 time.asctime([tupletime])
Accepts a time-tuple and returns a readable 24-character string such as
'Tue Dec 11 18:07:14 2008'.
3 time.clock( )
Returns the current CPU time as a floating-point number of seconds. To
measure computational costs of different approaches, the value of
time.clock is more useful than that of time.time().
4 time.ctime([secs])
Like asctime(localtime(secs)) and without arguments is like asctime( )
5 time.gmtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a
time-tuple t with the UTC time. Note : t.tm_isdst is always 0
6 time.localtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a
time-tuple t with the local time (t.tm_isdst is 0 or 1, depending on whether
DST applies to instant secs by local rules).
7 time.mktime(tupletime)
Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a
floating-point value with the instant expressed in seconds since the epoch.
8 time.sleep(secs)
Suspends the calling thread for secs seconds.
9 time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a
string representing the instant as specified by string fmt.
10 time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')
Parses str according to format string fmt and returns the instant in time-
tuple format.
11 time.time( )
Returns the current time instant, a floating-point number of seconds since
the epoch.
12 time.tzset()
Resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The
environment variable TZ specifies how this is done.
There are following two important attributes available with
time module:

SN Attribute with Description

1 time.timezone
Attribute time.timezone is the offset in seconds of the local
time zone (without DST) from UTC (>0 in the Americas; <=0 in
most of Europe, Asia, Africa).
2 time.tzname
Attribute time.tzname is a pair of locale-dependent strings,
which are the names of the local time zone without and with
DST, respectively.
The calendar Module
• The calendar module supplies calendar-related functions,
including functions to print a text calendar for a given month or
year.
• By default, calendar takes Monday as the first day of the week
and Sunday as the last one. To change this, call
calendar.setfirstweekday() function.
• SN
Here is a list of functions available
Function withwith the calendar module:
Description
1 calendar.calendar(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)

Returns a multiline string with a calendar for year year formatted into
three columns separated by c spaces. w is the width in characters of
each date; each line has length 21*w+18+2*c. l is the number of lines
for each week.
2 calendar.firstweekday( )

Returns the current setting for the weekday that starts each week. By
default, when calendar is first imported, this is 0, meaning Monday.
3 calendar.isleap(year)

Returns True if year is a leap year; otherwise, False.

4 calendar.leapdays(y1,y2)
Returns the total number of leap days in the years within range(y1,y2).
5 calendar.month(year,month,w=2,l=1)
Returns a multiline string with a calendar for month month of year year, one line per
week plus two header lines. w is the width in characters of each date; each line has
length 7*w+6. l is the number of lines for each week.
6 calendar.monthcalendar(year,month)
Returns a list of lists of ints. Each sublist denotes a week. Days outside month
month of year year are set to 0; days within the month are set to their day-of-
month, 1 and up.
7 calendar.monthrange(year,month)
Returns two integers. The first one is the code of the weekday for the first day of the
month month in year year; the second one is the number of days in the month.
Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday); month numbers are 1 to 12.
8 calendar.prcal(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)
Like print calendar.calendar(year,w,l,c).
9 calendar.prmonth(year,month,w=2,l=1)
Like print calendar.month(year,month,w,l).
10 calendar.setfirstweekday(weekday)
Sets the first day of each week to weekday code weekday. Weekday codes are 0
(Monday) to 6 (Sunday).
11 calendar.timegm(tupletime)
The inverse of time.gmtime: accepts a time instant in time-tuple form and returns
the same instant as a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch.
12 calendar.weekday(year,month,day)
Returns the weekday code for the given date. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6
(Sunday); month numbers are 1 (January) to 12 (December).