Subtopic 3.

1
Biodiversity
and Evolution
 Guiding Questions
● How can diversity be explained and quantified, and why is
this important?
● How does the unsustainable use of natural resources impact
biodiversity?
Importance
of
Biodiversity
 3.1.1 Introduction to
Biodiversity

Watchthe video and

answer Q2
 3.1.1 Introduction to
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life on
Earth, expressed in three main levels
● Genetic diversity: Variation
within species (e.g., different gene
variants).
● Species diversity: Variety of
species in an ecosystem (e.g.,
different types of plants, animals,
fungi).
● Habitat diversity: Range of
different habitats and ecosystems
(e.g., forests, wetlands, deserts).
 3.1.1 Species Diversity
The diversity of species in a given unit of
area for a given period of time. It is a
product of two variables, the number of
species (richness) and their relative
proportions (evenness).
● Richness: a measure of the number of
different species in an area; more
species means a richer environment.
● ​Evenness: the relative abundance of
the species. It therefore takes into
account the abundance or scarcity of
each species and eliminates the
 3.1.1 Habitat Diversity
● Diverse habitats provide different
niches and microclimates, allowing a
wider range of species to coexist.
● Each habitat supports a unique set of
species adapted to its specific
conditions.
 3.1.1 Genetic Diversity
● Genetic diversity is perhaps the most
important component of biodiversity
because it allows species to adapt and
evolve over time..

Answer Q4
 3.1.1 Low Genetic Diversity
● Cheetahs are an example of a species
with very low genetic diversity.
● Due to historical population
bottlenecks, cheetahs are genetically
similar to one another, which makes
them vulnerable to diseases and
reduces their ability to adapt to
environmental changes.
● Their low genetic diversity poses a
significant threat to their long-term
survival.
 3.1.1 Genetically Identical
● Bananas
Many commercial banana crops
are genetically identical, as they
are propagated through cloning.
● This uniformity makes bananas
highly susceptible to pests and
diseases, such as the Panama
disease, because if one plant is
vulnerable, the entire population
is at risk.
● The lack of genetic diversity Answer Q6
means that banana crops lack the
resilience to adapt to new
 3.1.1 High Genetic Diversity:
Coral Reefs
● Coral reefs often show a high
level of genetic diversity within
species.
● Different populations of corals
may have genetic variations that
allow them to survive in slightly
different conditions, such as
varying water temperatures or
levels of acidity https://coral.org/en/blog/why-does-coral-reef-diversity-
matter/
 3.1.1 Importance of
Biodiversity providesBiodiversity
ecosystem services:
● Pollination: Vital for crop production and wild plants.
● Water purification: Wetlands filter water naturally.
● Soil fertility: Microorganisms and decomposers enrich soil.
 3.1.1 Importance of
Human benefits: Biodiversity
● Food: Fisheries, agriculture.
● Medicine: Plants and animals are sources of medicines.
● Climate regulation: Forests sequester carbon; oceans
absorb CO2.
 3.1.2 Ecosystem Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of ecosystems to withstand and
recover from disruptions (natural disasters, human impacts).
● Genetic diversity: Allows populations to adapt to changes
(e.g., climate shifts, disease).
● Species diversity: More species in a system = more roles
(e.g., predators, decomposers, pollinators) = greater
stability.
● Habitat diversity: Different habitats support different
species, leading to niche specialization and greater
resilience.
 3.1.2 Ecosystem Resilience
● Ecosystem, species, and genetic
diversity are interconnected and
essential for the health of ecosystems.
● Habitat diversity promotes species
diversity, while species diversity
depends on genetic diversity for long-
term adaptability.
● A loss at any level weakens the entire
system, making ecosystems more
vulnerable to collapse and reducing their
ability to provide vital services like clean
air, water, and food.
 3.1.2 Complexity and Stability
Complex ecosystems are composed
of many species interacting with
more connections (food webs) and a
more stable system.

Answer Q7
 3.1.2 Succession Impact
Succession is the process of ecological development over time.
● Pioneer communities: Early stages (lichens, mosses) =
simple food webs, low resilience.
● Climax communities: Mature ecosystems (forests,
grasslands) = complex food webs, high resilience.
 3.1.2 Human Impact
● Deforestation: Reduces habitat and species diversity,
lowering ecosystem stability.
● Positive impact: Rewilding efforts (e.g., Yellowstone wolf
reintroduction) restore natural balance and enhance
resilience.
 3.1.7 Species Diversity
Species diversity is an important
indicator of ecosystem health and
stability. It is composed of two key
components:
● Species richness: The number
of different species present in a
community. Richness alone,
however, does not fully
represent the diversity of an
ecosystem.
● Species evenness: The
relative abundance of
 3.1.7 Species Diversity
High richness + high evenness = more stable ecosystems, as
there is a balance among species.
● Example: A forest with diverse tree species supports a
variety of animals and insects, making the system more
resilient.
Low evenness: When one species dominates, it reduces the
diversity of ecosystem services (e.g., monocultures in agriculture
are vulnerable to disease).
 3.1.7 Species Diversity
● Tropical rainforests have high species richness and
evenness, which supports high biodiversity, complex food
webs, and ecosystem resilience.
● Deforestation reduces both richness and evenness, leading
to biodiversity loss.
 3.1.7 Levels of Diversity - Q9
Activity: Find examples of each level of biodiversity from a local
and global ecosystems (e.g., genetic diversity in crops, species
diversity in tropical rainforests, ecosystem diversity in wetlands).
 3.1.7 Species Diversity - Q10
Activity: Review the images representing different ecosystems to
understand species richness and evenness.
● Examine the number and types of species visible in each
ecosystem.
● Count the total number of different species you see in this
ecosystem. (Estimate where exact numbers are not clear.)
● Compare the species richness of the three ecosystems. Which
ecosystem has the highest species richness? Which has the
lowest?
● Compare the species evenness of the ecosystems. Which
ecosystem appears to have populations that are more balanced
in number?
3.1.7 Species Diversity -
Activity

https://digfir-published.macmillanusa.com/friedlandapes2e/asset/img_ch5/friedland_2e_fig14_02.html
 3.1.8 Simpson’s Reciprocal
Simpson’s reciprocal index Index
(D) provides a quantitative measure
of species diversity.

● D is the Simpson diversity index

● – N is the total number of organisms
of all species found
● – n is the number of individuals of a
particular species
● Diversity is often considered as a
function of two components:
○ the number of different species
○ the relative numbers of
individuals of each species.
 3.1.8 Simpson’s Reciprocal
Index
High index values: Ecosystems with a high Simpson’s index
have a greater number of species and a more even distribution
of individuals among species.
Low index values: Low values suggest that a few species
dominate the ecosystem, and diversity is lower.
 3.1.8 Simpson’s Reciprocal
Index - Q12
Activity: Reference the data in Q12. Complete the analyses.
 3.1.8 Sampling for Diversity
Comparisons
Appropriate procedures:
● Quadrats for plants.
● Sweep nets for insects.
● Pitfall traps for ground-dwelling invertebrates.
● Camera Traps and Scat Surveys
● Electrofishing or Gill Nets:
Compare diversity over time or between locations by calculating
Simpson’s reciprocal index for each.
 3.1.8 Sampling in Different
Ecosystems
Grasslands To assess grass species diversity in a grassland,
random sampling can be done using 1 m² quadrats within a
larger area. The number of grass species and their abundance
can be recorded. For small mammals like voles or mice, live
traps (e.g., Sherman traps) can be placed systematically across
the area to estimate population density and species diversity.
 3.1.8 Sampling in Different
Ecosystems - Q16
Research other examples of sampling in different ecosystems
 3.1.8 Simpson’s Reciprocal
Index Field Work - Q17
Application of skills: Collect data in order to work out
Simpson’s reciprocal index for diversity.
 3.1.9 Knowledge of
Biodiversity for Conservation
Biodiversity knowledge is key to effective conservation
strategies.
● Identifies species at risk of extinction.
● Helps target areas where habitat protection is needed.
● Conservation management requires understanding local and
global biodiversity patterns.
 3.1.9 Citizen Science

Engages local communities

in data collection (e.g.,
birdwatching, tree counts).
 3.1.9 Government and NGOs

Large-scale biodiversity surveys

and species monitoring programs.
 3.1.9 Indigenous knowledge
Involves training local
communities (e.g., parabiologists)
to gather data on biodiversity in
their regions.
 Evolution
and
Biodiversity
 3.1.3 Biodiversity and the
Evolutionary Processes

Watch the video

and complete Q19
 3.1.3 Biodiversity and the
Evolutionary Processes
● Evolution: The process by which species change over time
through natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and gene
flow.
● Biodiversity: Arises as species adapt to their environments
and diverge into new species.
 3.1.3 Key Processes in
●
Evolution
Natural selection: Traits that increase survival become
more common in a population.
● Mutation: Random changes in DNA create genetic variation.
● Speciation: When populations become isolated, they evolve
into different species..
 3.1.4 Natural Selection
● Natural selection: Organisms with traits better suited to
their environment survive and reproduce, passing on those
traits.
● Drives adaptation: Over time, populations evolve traits
that enhance survival.
 3.1.4 Key Mechanisms of
Natural Selection
● Genetic Variation: Every species has individuals with slight
differences. For instance, some moths may be lighter in color
due to their genes.
● Survival of the Fittest: Certain traits give individuals an
advantage in survival, especially when resources are limited.
For example, lighter-colored moths may be harder for birds
to spot on tree bark, increasing their chances of survival.
 3.1.4 Key Mechanisms of
Natural Selection
● Reproduction: Those that survive longer are more likely to
reproduce. A moth that avoids predation can live longer, find
mates, and produce offspring.
● Inheritance: The survivors pass their advantageous traits
to their offspring. Over time, more moths inherit these
beneficial traits, increasing their frequency in the population.
 3.1.4 Natural Selection

Natural selection leads to the

development of new species and
greater biodiversity over billions
of years. - Q20
 3.1.4 Natural Selection -
Activity - Q23
Activity: Imagine a population of birds with different beak sizes.
The available food sources are either large seeds (which require
big beaks to crack) or small seeds (which require small beaks). A
drought reduces the availability of small seeds, leaving only large
seeds.
● Step 1: Predict which birds are more likely to survive and
reproduce in this scenario.
● Step 2: How will the population’s beak sizes change over
multiple generations? Illustrate a potential population shift.
 3.1.4 Natural Selection -
Activity - Q24
Activity: Research the peppered moth and
how it adapted to environmental changes
during the Industrial Revolution. How did
the pollution in the environment affect the
survival of light-colored vs. dark-colored
moths?
 3.1.5 Evolution by Natural
Selection
Natural selection occurs because genetic diversity within a
population gives rise to variation among individuals.

These variations can affect an individual’s ability to survive and

reproduce
 3.1.5 Key Mechanisms
● Variation: Genetic diversity within a population leads to
differences in traits such as size, coloration, or behavior.
● Overproduction: Most species produce more offspring than
can survive to adulthood.
● Competition: In the struggle for resources, individuals with
traits that give them an advantage (e.g., speed, camouflage,
resistance to disease) are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
 3.1.5 Key Mechanisms
● Differential survival and reproduction: Individuals with
advantageous traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce, passing these traits to their offspring.
● Heritability: Variation is heritable, meaning that traits that
provide a survival advantage are passed down from parents
to offspring. Over time, as more individuals inherit
advantageous traits, these traits become more common in
the population, driving evolutionary change.
 3.1.6 Speciation

Watch the video

and complete Q26
 3.1.6 Speciation
Speciation is the formation of new species through the process
of evolution.
● Over time, isolated populations accumulate genetic
variations that make them increasingly distinct.
● These variations in the species can change the organisms so
much that they can no longer breed with the original
species, making them a distinct species.
3.1.6 Speciation - Activity - Q27
Activity: Select a species known for its evolutionary history and
speciation process. Some examples include:
● Darwin's finches on the Galápagos Islands.
● Cichlid fish in African Great Lakes.
● Polar bears evolving from brown bears.
● Apple maggot flies and their divergence due to different host
plants.
3.1.6 Speciation - Activity - Q27
Conduct research on the following aspects of the chosen species:
● Original Population:
● Environmental Changes or Isolation:
● Adaptations and Evolution:
● Speciation
● Present-Day Species:
3.1.6 Speciation - Activity - Q27
Write a research report detailing the evolutionary changes,
speciation events, and environmental factors that contributed to
the development of the new species
● What were the main factors driving the speciation of the
species?
● How did isolation play a role in the emergence of new traits?
● Are there similarities in the speciation process of different
species?
HL Only
3.1.10 DNA
 3.1.10 DNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the
molecule that carries the genetic
instructions for life.
● DNA is composed of four
nitrogenous bases:
● Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine
(C), Guanine (G).
● The sequence of these bases forms
the genetic code.

https://www.my46.org/intro/what-is-dna
 3.1.10 DNA
DNA bases are grouped in triplets,
known as codons.
● Each codon codes for a specific
amino acid, which are the building
blocks of proteins.
● Proteins carry out essential
functions in the body and determine
traits.
● Example: The codon "AUG" codes
for the amino acid methionine.
https://www.my46.org/intro/what-is-dna
3.1.10 Genetic Diversity - Q30
● ​Genetic diversity within a
population is vital for
adaptation and evolution,
providing the raw material for
natural selection.
● Two key mechanisms
contribute to this diversity:
mutation and sexual
reproduction.
 3.1.10 Mutations
Mutations are random changes in the DNA sequence that
create new gene variants, increasing genetic diversity within
populations.
● Example: In plants, mutations in flower color genes can
lead to variations that attract different pollinators,
increasing the chances of reproduction.
● Mutations can lead to advantageous traits that help
organisms adapt to changing environments.

Genetic variation is essential for evolution, as it provides the

raw material for natural selection to act upon.
 3.1.10 Mutation Benefits
Beneficial mutations improve an organism’s ability to survive
and reproduce in its environment.
● Over generations, these advantageous mutations become
more common, contributing to evolutionary change.
● Natural selection favors beneficial mutations, while harmful
mutations are usually removed from the population over
time.
● Increased genetic variability through mutation allows
populations to adapt to new environmental pressures, such
as climate changes or the introduction of new predators.
 3.1.11 Reproductive Isolation
Reproductive isolation is a key factor in the formation of new
species. It prevents gene flow between populations. Can occur
due to:
● Geographical barriers (e.g., rivers, mountains).
● Behavioral differences (e.g., different courtship
behaviors).
3.1.11 Types of Reproductive
Isolation
3.1.11
Types-
Q36
 3.1.11 Types of Speciation

There are three basic ideas of speciation:

● allopatric speciation
● sympatric speciation
● parapatric speciation
 3.1.11 Allopatric Speciation

● Occurs when a species separates into two separate

groups which are isolated from one another.
● A physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a
waterway, makes it impossible for them to breed with one
another.
 3.1.11 Sympatric speciation

● Occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing

any members of a species from mating with another, and all
members are in close proximity to one another.
● A new species, perhaps based on a different food source or
characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously.
● Some individuals become dependent on certain aspects of
an environment—such as shelter or food sources—while
others do not. Some scientist don't believe it exist
 3.1.11 Parapatric speciation

● Occurs when a species is spread out over a large

geographic area. Although it is possible for any member of
the species to mate with another member, individuals only
mate with those in their own geographic region.
● Different habitats influence the development of different
species in parapatric speciation.
● Instead of being separated by a physical barrier, the species
are separated by differences in the same environment.
 3.1.11 Island Endemism

● Isolated islands have high rates of endemism,

● Species evolve independently, free from gene flow with
mainland populations.
● Reduces genetic mixing, allowing populations to diverge
through genetic drift and natural selection.
● Present new, unoccupied niches, allowing species to evolve
into specialized roles.
3.1.11 Island Endemism

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and complete Q41
 3.1.12 Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are areas with exceptionally high levels
of species richness and endemism (species found nowhere else).
● Hotspots often have many species that are under threat of
extinction.
● Example: The Amazon Rainforest, Coral Triangle (in the
Pacific Ocean), and Madagascar are some of the world’s
biodiversity hotspots..
 3.1.12 Biodiversity Hotspots

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and complete Q42
3.1.12 Biodiversity Hotspots
 3.1.12 Key Points
● Includes about 10 tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon
and the Congo Basin, but also regions in most other biomes:
● Covers less than 2% of the Earth’s surface, but contain over
50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial
vertebrate species.
● Have more than 1,500 species of plants which are endemic
in the habitats
● Covers only 2.5% of the land surface
● Tends to have large densities of human habitation nearby.
 3.1.12 Importance of Hotspots
● Conservation priority: Biodiversity hotspots cover less
than 2% of the Earth’s land surface but contain more than
50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial
vertebrate species.

Protecting these areas is critical for conserving global

biodiversity.
 3.1.12 Misleading Hotspots
● the focus is only on vascular plants. It ignores all animals
● hotspots do not represent the total species diversity and
richness
● only focuses on regions where habitats have ben lost. It
ignores whether that loss is still happening
● does not consider genetic diversity
● does not consider the value of services
3.1.12 Hotspots - Activity - Q46
Activity: Go to:
http://www.conservation.org/How/Pages/Hotspots.aspx.
● Choose one of the biodiversity hotspots to study. Complete the
following questions
○ List one animal and one plant that are native to this area.
○ Identify the country where this hotspot located
○ State if the country is an LEDC or an MEDC
○ Identify the human activities that are contributing to the
biodiversity loss in this area
○ Identify management strategies that are being done to protect
this hotspot. If no management strategies are currently in
place, suggest potential solutions and strategies for
 3.1.13 Human Activity as a
Selective Pressure
● Urbanization: Species adapt to cities (e.g., pigeons and
squirrels).
● Agriculture: Pests evolve resistance to pesticides due to
intense selection pressure.
● Climate change: shifting ecosystems, and forcing species
to migrate or adapt to new temperature and precipitation
patterns
● Hunting, Poaching, and Harvesting: Selective pressures
favor individuals that avoid human detection, leading to
changes in behavior or physical traits over generations.
3.1.13 Human Activity as a
Selective Pressure

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and complete Q47
 3.1.13 Examples of Human-
Driven Evolution
● Urban squirrels: Adapted to navigating road crossings due
to increased road-related mortality.
● Pesticide resistance: Insects evolving to survive
pesticides in agricultural fields
 3.1.14 Artificial Selection
Artificial selection is the process by which humans selectively
breed plants and animals for specific traits (e.g., higher yields,
disease resistance).
● Unlike natural selection, artificial selection is intentional
and occurs rapidly.
3.1.14 Artificial Selection

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and complete
Q52
3.1.14 Artificial Selection - Q53
 3.1.14 Impact on Genetic
● Diversity
Reduced genetic diversity: Populations become more
uniform, reducing the ability to adapt to environmental
changes.
● Example: Bananas are genetically identical, making them
highly susceptible to disease (e.g., Panama disease).
● Vulnerability: Lack of genetic diversity increases risk from
disease outbreaks and environmental shifts.
3.1.14 Impact on Genetic
Diversity

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and complete
Q56
 3.1.14 Importance of Genetic
Diversity
Economic Perspective:
● Diverse crops and livestock are better able to resist disease
outbreaks, ensuring food security and reducing the need for
chemical interventions.
Environmental Perspective:
● Genetic diversity in natural populations supports ecosystem
resilience and adaptability, helping species survive in
changing environments and preserving biodiversity.
3.1.14 Importance of Genetic
Diversity

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and complete
Q57
Earth History
3.1.16 Geological Timescale

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and complete
Q58
 3.1.16 Geological Timescale
Geological timescale is a system of chronological dating that
classifies Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs
based on major geological and biological events.
● Divided into four major eons: Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic (the current eon).
● Eras within the Phanerozoic eon include the Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras.

Each period and epoch is defined by the appearance and

disappearance of species, often determined by fossil
evidence.
 3.1.16 Major Events Marking
Epoch Transitions
Epochs are divided by significant shifts in Earth's climate,
geology, and biology:
● Pleistocene Epoch: The most recent Ice Age, with large
mammals like woolly mammoths.
● Holocene Epoch: The current epoch, which began about
11,700 years ago, following the end of the last Ice Age.
● Possible new epoch: The Anthropocene may mark the
beginning of significant human impact on Earth’s
ecosystems.
3.1.16
Major
Events
 3.1.15 Fossils
Fossils are the preserved remains, imprints, or traces of ancient
organisms.
● Fossils can include bones, teeth, shells, or traces like
footprints.
● Fossils are typically found in sedimentary rocks formed over
millions of years. Watch the video
and complete
Q61
 3.1.16 Fossil Records as
Markers of Epochs
Fossil records help scientists understand when major
environmental changes occurred and when species evolved or
went extinct.
● Fossils act as chronological markers, providing insight into
the changes in life forms across different epochs.

Example: The Cambrian Explosion (about 540 million years ago)

is marked by the sudden appearance of many diverse and
complex organisms in the fossil record.
 3.1.15 Importance of Fossils in
Understanding Evolution
Fossils provide direct evidence of how life on Earth has changed
over time.
● Show how species have evolved and adapted to changing
environments.
● Provide insights into the anatomy, diet, and behaviors of ancient
species.
● Transitional fossils: Fossils that show intermediate traits between
ancestral and descendant species, illustrating the gradual
changes in species.
 3.1.16 : Limitations of the
Fossil Record
● Incomplete record: Not all organisms are equally likely to
fossilize—soft-bodied organisms leave fewer fossils than hard-
bodied species.
● Fossils are often fragmented or weathered, making it difficult
to reconstruct complete organisms.
● Fossilization is rare, and many species that lived on Earth may
never have been preserved.
3.1.16 : Fossils and Extinction
Events
● Fossils provide evidence of mass extinctions, such as the
extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous Period.
● Mass extinctions create opportunities for new species to evolve
and fill empty ecological niches, leading to bursts of biodiversity
after extinction events.
● Example: After the extinction of dinosaurs, mammals diversified
and became the dominant land animals.
 3.1.17 Mass Extinctions
Mass extinctions are events in Earth’s history where large numbers
of species die out in a relatively short period of time.
● Typically caused by catastrophic environmental changes.
● These events mark significant breaks in the evolutionary
timeline and are usually followed by periods of rapid speciation.
● Five major mass extinctions have occurred in Earth's history.
3.1.17 Five Major Mass
Extinctions

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and complete
Q64
 3.1.17 Five Major Mass
Extinctions
Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (~445 million years ago)
● 85% of marine species wiped out.
● Likely caused by a severe ice age followed by a rapid warming
period.
● Late Devonian Extinction (~375 million years ago)
● 75% of species lost, especially marine life.
● Triggered by changes in sea level and the impact of asteroid or
volcanic activity.
 3.1.17 Five Major Mass
Extinctions
Permian-Triassic Extinction (~252 million years ago)
● Known as the "Great Dying," 96% of marine species and 70% of
land species died out.
● Likely caused by massive volcanic eruptions, climate change, and
ocean acidification.
Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (~201 million years ago)
● 80% of species disappeared, paving the way for dinosaurs to
dominate the Jurassic period.
● Causes included volcanic activity, climate change, and asteroid
impact.
 3.1.17 Five Major Mass
Extinctions
Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) Extinction (~66 million years ago)
● 75% of species, including non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct.
● Likely caused by an asteroid impact and volcanic activity, which
drastically changed the climate.
 3.1.17 Role of Mass
Extinctions in Evolution
Ecological niches become available after mass extinctions, allowing
for adaptive radiation:
● Adaptive radiation: The rapid evolution of new species to fill
ecological roles left vacant by extinct species.
● Example: After the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, mammals
diversified rapidly to occupy the niches left by the dinosaurs.

Mass extinctions act as evolutionary reset points, leading to

bursts of speciation and the emergence of new dominant species.
 3.1.17 Speciation After Mass
Extinctions
Speciation is the process by which new species arise due to genetic
differences that accumulate over time.
● After a mass extinction, species that survive face reduced
competition and can evolve into new species to exploit different
habitats or food sources.
● Example: Mammals evolved into a wide variety of forms after
the extinction of the dinosaurs, leading to the emergence of
many modern species.
 3.1.17 Causes of Mass
● Extinctions
Tectonic plate movements:
● Super-volcanic eruptions:
● Climate change:
● Sea-level changes:
● Asteroid impacts:
3.1.17 6th Mass Extinctions

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and complete
Q66
 3.1.18 The Anthropocene
Epoch
Anthropocene is a proposed geological epoch that highlights the
significant and lasting impact humans have had on Earth's
ecosystems, geology, and atmosphere.
● Marked by human activities that have altered natural
processes on a global scale.
● Although not officially recognized by the International
Commission on Stratigraphy, many scientists argue that the
Anthropocene represents a distinct epoch.
 3.1.18 Key Characteristics
● Climate change: The rapid increase in greenhouse gases from
burning fossil fuels has led to global warming and climate
instability.
● Habitat destruction: Widespread deforestation, urbanization,
and agricultural expansion have transformed landscapes and
reduced biodiversity.
● Pollution: Plastics, synthetic chemicals, and radioactive
particles from nuclear tests are accumulating in the environment.
● Species extinction: Human activities have accelerated the rate
of species extinction, contributing to the sixth mass extinction.
 3.1.18 Evidence of the
Anthropocene
● Carbon dioxide levels:
● Plastics and microplastics:
● Nuclear fallout:.
● Fly ash particles:
 3.1.18 Possible Start Dates of
the Anthropocene
1610 CO2 dip: After European colonization of the Americas,
indigenous populations declined, leading to reforestation and a
noticeable dip in atmospheric CO2 levels.
Industrial Revolution (mid-18th century): The rise of industrial activity
and the widespread burning of coal dramatically increased carbon
emissions and began altering Earth's systems.
 3.1.18 Possible Start Dates of
the Anthropocene
1950s "Great Acceleration": The post-World War II period marked
a massive increase in population growth, industrial activity, and
resource consumption, leading to a rapid escalation in human
impact.
Nuclear tests in the 1960s: The spread of radioactive fallout from
nuclear weapons testing is detectable in sediments worldwide.
 3.1.18 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
On July 2023, Crawford Lake,
Ontario, Canada was announced as
the location for the golden spike
which will mark the Global
Boundary Stratotype Section and
Point (GSSP) that is required for the
citation of a new Epoch

Watch the video

and complete
Q68
 3.1.18 Living Planet Report

The World Wide Fund for

Nature produces a periodic
report on the state of the
world's ecosystems, called
the Living Planet
Report. The 2022 report
showed an average decline
of 69% decrease since
1970
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
Human activities have created distinct markers in geological strata
that may persist for millions of years
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
Chemical pollution: Synthetic chemicals, such as pesticides, heavy
metals, and other industrial pollutants, have been found in
ecosystems worldwide, even in remote areas like the Arctic.
● These pollutants accumulate in geological strata and have the
potential to remain in the environment for millennia.
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
Plastics: Microplastics are now found in nearly every ecosystem,
from deep oceans to mountain peaks.
● Plastics do not decompose easily, and their presence in
sediments marks a clear indicator of human impact during the
Anthropocene.
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Sedimentary changes: Record
The alteration of terrestrial and marine
sedimentary systems due to construction, agriculture, and damming
rivers is reshaping landscapes.
● Humans have created new minerals (e.g., aluminum alloys,
concrete, and plastic particles) that did not exist before
industrialization.
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
Non-native species: Human transportation and trade have
introduced species to new environments, leading to long-term
ecological shifts.
● Example: The introduction of species like rats, cats, and goats to
islands has caused the extinction of many native species.

These shifts will be recorded in the fossil record as invasive species

replace or drive out native species.
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
Nuclear testing during the mid-20th century left a global signature
of radioactive isotopes, such as Carbon-14 and Plutonium-239.
● These isotopes are found in sediments, ice cores, and tree rings,
providing a precise marker of human influence in the mid-20th
century.
● Nuclear fallout serves as one of the strongest pieces of evidence
for the start of the Anthropocene, with the "Golden Spike"
marking the post-World War II period.
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
Agriculture and construction: Human activities have
fundamentally altered natural landscapes, changing how sediments
are deposited.
● Large-scale construction projects (e.g., cities, dams) have
reshaped rivers, coastlines, and forests, leaving a lasting impact
on Earth's surface.
● Tilling of soil for agriculture has accelerated soil erosion and
altered sedimentation patterns, changing the way land
accumulates sediment over time.
Dam building: Dams block natural sediment flows, altering the
 3.1.9 Evidence of Human
Impact on the Geological
Record
New minerals and materials created by humans, such as
concrete, aluminum alloys, and plastic particles, are now part of
Earth's geological record.
● These materials do not exist naturally and will be distinguishable
in future geological layers, acting as markers of human activity
during the Anthropocene.
 3.1.9 Future Implications
Long-term consequences: Human activities have altered Earth's
biological and geological systems in ways that will likely persist for
millions of years.
● Future scientists will be able to trace human influence on the
planet long after our civilization has ended through these
geological markers.
 3.1.9 Future Implications
Debate on formal recognition: While many scientists agree that
the Anthropocene marks a distinct epoch, others argue that we are
still within the Holocene (which began approximately 11,700 years
ago).
● Formal recognition of the Anthropocene as an official geological
epoch is still under discussion within the scientific community.